IRELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 


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Religious  Education 


Religious  Education 

A  COMPREHENSIVE 
TEXT  BOOK 

Illustrated 


By  the  Rev. 

WILLIAM  WALTER  SMITH 


A.B.,  A.M.  (Princeton);  M.D.  (College  oj  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons; Columbia);    General  Theological  Seminary;   Graduate 
Studentin  Teachers'  College  (Columbia  Uniojersity) .    General 
Secretary  of  the  Sunday  School  Federation  oJ  the  Church. 
Secretary  oJ  the   Sunday  School  Commission,  Diocese  of 
Neav  York.     Secretary  oJ  the  Neiv  York  Sunday  School 
Association.     Author  of  "The  History  and  Use   oj 
the  Prayer  Book";   "Christian  Doctrine";    "The 
Making   of  the    Bible";    "From  Exile  to  Ad- 
"vent" ;     "Sunday     School    Teaching,"    etc. 


With  Fore-word  by 

CHARLES  WILLIAM  STOUGHTON 


MILWAUKEE 

THE  YOUNG  CHURCHMAN  CO. 

1909 


Copyright  1009. 

BY 

THE   YOUNG   CHURCHMAN   CO. 


To 
My  Beloved  Wife 

Partner  of  my  life,  and  Co-laborer  in  my  Educational  Work 


CONTENTS 

TART  I.— THE  SCOPE  AND  AIM  OF  RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION. 

THE   WHY  OF  TEACHING. 

Chapter  I. — The  Aim  or  Purpose  of  Education 3 

Man's  Five-fold  Educational  Inheritance — The  Factors  or 
Means — The  Object  or  Aim  of  the  Church  School — Definitions 
of  Education — I'rofessor  Dewey's  Broad  Statement — Dr.  Brown's 
Definition — Our  Educational  Ideal — Every  Lesson  Must  Func- 
tion in  Doing — Three  Elements  in  All  Education — An  Ideal  of 
Education  Needful  for  Good  Work. 

PART  II.— THE  TEACHER,   HIS  CHARACTER  AND  TRAINING. 
THE  WHO  OF  TEACHING. 

Chapter  II. — The  Teacher's  Work 17 

The  Teacher  and  the  Child — The  Teacher,  His  Necessary  Quali- 
fications— Other  Essential  Qualifications — Some  Silent  Teach- 
ers— The  Primary  Peril — How  a  Proper  System  will  Help  Teach- 
ers— Teaching  Is  both  an  Art  and  a  Science — Teachers'  Meet- 
ings. 

PART  III.— THE  CHILD  AND  CHILD-STUDY,  OR  THE  PROCESS  OF 

MIND  GROWTH. 

THE  WHOM  OF  TEACHING. 

Chapter  III.— The    Nature    of   the    Child 33 

The  Discovery  of  the  Child — The  Study  of  the  Child — Heredity 
vs.  Environment — Heredity — Personality — Infancy  and  Educa- 
tion— The  New-born  Child — The  Symbolic  Period. 

Chapter  IV. — A  Study  of  Psychology 42 

The  Old  vs.  the  New  Psychology — Self-activity — The  Lowest 
Form  of  Life — Evolutionary  Remains — Types  of  Cells — The  Ner- 
vous System — Neurones,  or  Nerve  Fibres — Weight  of  the  Brain 
— The  Localization  of  Functions  in  Cerebrum — Stream  of  Con- 
sciousness— An  Illustration  of  the  Fringe — -Thinking — Apper- 
ception— Realizing  an  Idea — Stages  of  Thinking. 

Chapter  V. — A  Study  of  Psychology  (Continued)  ....  74 
Attention  and  Interest — Types  of  Attention — Memory — Types  of 
Memory — The  Sub-conscious  Self — The  Will — Deliberation — 
Deliberation,  Reflection,  and  Willing — Types  of  Will — Opposi- 
tion of  Knowing,  Feeling,  and  Willing — Emotion,  Intellect,  and 
Will — Face,  the  Window  of  Mind. 

Chapter  VI. — A  Study  of  Psychology  (Continued)      ....       92 
Instincts,    Native    and    Acquired — Classification    of    Instincts — 
Instinct  vs.  Reason — Instincts  of  Educational  Value — Habits — 
The  Self — Elements  of  Moral  Training. 

Chapter    VII. — The    Stages    of    Development — I.  Primary  Age, 

1    to    6    years    old 108 

I. — Physical  Chabacteristics  :     Restlessness — Activity — Love 


viii  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

of  riay— Savagery.  II. — Mental  Chahacteristics  :  Depend- 
ence on  Others — Frankness — Faith  and  Trust — Personification — 
Self-unconsciousness  — •  Imitatlveness  —  Curiosity —  Imagination 
Active — Concreteness — Conscience  Undeveloped — Memory  Weak 
— Sex-uuconsclousness.  Hints  to  Parents  and  Teachers  : 
Avoid  Affectation — Develop  Perception — Watch  Child's  Com- 
panions. 

Chapter  VIII. — The   Stages   of   Development — II.   Later   Child- 
hood,  G   to   12   years  old 126 

I. — Physical  Characteristics  :  Less  Restlessness — Tireless 
Activity — Irresistible  Impulsiveness — Daring — Truant  Procliv- 
ities. II.- — Mental  Characteristics:  Rising  Desire  for  Inde- 
pendence— Crude  Sense  of  Humor — Creature  of  the  Present — 
Natural  Imitator — Group  Age — Memory  Age — Desire  for  Affec- 
tion— Collecting  Instinct — Rise  of  Conscience — Sex  Repellance — ■ 
Need  of  Positive  Teaching. 

Chapter  IX. — The  Stages  of  Development — III.  Early  and  Mid- 
dle Adolescence,  12  to  18;  16  to  19  years  old  .  .  138 
I. — Bodily  Changes  Predominate  :  Sex-attraction— Novel  in 
Age  of  Romance.  II. — Mental  Changes  :  Self-consciousness — 
Age  of  Ideals — Developing  of  Reason — Storm  and  Stress — Con- 
version Period — Curve  of  Conversion — Gang  Age — Strengthening 
of  Conscience — The  Autljiarung — Development  of  Will — Ritual 
and  Adolescence — Kthicai  Dualism — Revival  of  Private  Prayer. 

Chapter  X. — The  Stages  of  Development — Later  Adolescence, 

IS  to  25  years  of  age;  Manhood,  25  years  onward  172 
Chief  Characteristics  of  Adolescence — Relation  Between  Mind 
and  Body — Effect  of  Body  on  Mind  and  Spirit — Effect  of  Mind 
and  Spirit  on  Body — Types  of  Children — Sex  Differences — 
Temperament— Reaction  Time — Temperament  and  Christianity 
— Table  of  Temperament — A  Suggestion  to  Teachers. 

PART  IV.— TUE  LESSON  AND  ITS  PREPARATION. 
THE  WHEREWITHAL  OF  TEACHING. 

Chapter  XI. — How   to    Prepare    the    Lesson 193 

—  How  to  Prepare  to  Study  the  Lesson — Dr.  Hervey's  Directions 
for  Study — The  Herbartian  or  Formal  Steps — Other  I'oints  of 
Importance — Elements  in  Review — Importance  of  Reviews — Ex- 
aminations— Adult  Classes — Types  in  Teaching. 
Chapter  XII.— "The  Point  of  Contact"  in  Teaching  ....  223 
The  Plane  of  Experience — How  Much  Children  Know — Words 
as  Vehicles  of  Thought — The  Child's  Vocabulary — How  to  Graft 
Unknown  to  Known — Rules  to  Find  the  Point  of  Contact. 

PART   v.— THE   CURRICULUM. 
THE    WHAT   OF  TEACHING. 

Chapter  XIII. — Grading  the  Sunday   School 239 

What  is  a  Graded  School — What  Grading  is  Not — Practical 
Grading — How  to  Grade  a  Small  School — Principles  of  a  Well 
Rounded  Curriculum — Some  Standard  Curricula — Order  of 
Studies — Subjects  Suggested — Analysis  of  each  Grade — Best 
Practical  Way  to  Set  About  Grading. 

PART  VI.— TUE  CLASS. 
THE  HOW   OF  TEACHING. 

Chapter  XIV.— Order 271 

What  is  Order — Difference  Between  Securing  and  Maintaining 
Order — Securing  Order — Agencies  for  Keeping  Order — Restless- 
ness Causes  Disorder — Emotions  as  Incentives — Pupils  Innately 
Disorderly — Penalties — Disorderly  Teachers. 

Chapter  XV. — The    Art   of   Securing    Attention 289 

How  to  Hold  Attention — Law  of  Voluntary  Attention — How 
not  to  Get  Attention — Principles  Involved — Will  as  Basis  of 
Attention — Methods   for   Holding    Attention — Other    Suggestive 


CONTENTS  ix 

Rules — Placing  Scholars — Negative  Variatlona  of  Attention — 
FntlKue — Signs  of  Fatigue. 

Chapter  XVI. — The  Proper  and   Improper  Uses  of  Interest     .     298 

How  to  Secure  Interest — Two  Kinds  of  Interest — Practical  Pre- 
tepts — Killing  Interest — False  Views  of  Interest — Some  Help- 
ful Suggestions. 

Chapter  XVII.— The   Art  of  Questioning 306 

I'sos  of  Questions — What  is  Effect  of  a  Question — Method  of 
Sunday  School  Questioning — Kinds  of  Questions — Curiosity 
Kindled  by  Questions — How  to  Learn  to  Question — Character 
of  Questions — Adolescent  ana  Adult  Classes.  ^^ 

Chapter  XVIII.— How  to    Use   Stories   and    Illustrations      .      .     317      i^ 

Stories  and  Parables — Purpose  of  Using  Stories — To  What 
does  Illustration  Appeal? — Dangers  in  Illustration — Character- 
istics of  a  Good  Illustration — Points  to  be  Remembered  in 
Story-Telling — Brief  Rules — How  to  Learn  How — Other  Illus- 
trative  Methods — Graded   Stereoscopic   Worlj. 

Chapter  XIX. — Manual    Work   in   the   Sunday   School  .      .      332 

Manual  Work — Map-Making  in  Relief — In  Flat — Modeilc  Work. 

Chapter  XX. — Memory  and   Its  Training 337 

Memory-Training — What  Kinds  of  Memory  Wanted — Types  of 
Memory — Chief  Educational  Laws  of  Memory — How  to  Mem- 
orize— Reasoning — Forgetting — Memorlter  Work — Reasons  for 
Written  Answer  Work — Question-and-Answer  Work — The  Cate- 
chism— Should  Anything  be  Learned  that  is  not  Understood? 

Chapter  XXI. — The   Inculcation  and  Training  of   Habits  352 

Habit-Forming — Habit  End  of  School  Work — Sub-conscious 
Field  of  Habit — Specialization  in  Habit  Formation — Rules  for 
Habit  Formation — Other  Suggestions — Elements  of  Moral  Train- 
ing— Cultivation   of  Doing — Some   Important   Habits. 

Chapter  XXII. — The  Will  in  Sunday  School  Teaching  363 

Moral  Training  is  Will  Training — Training  Will — Self-denial — 
Desire  and  Will — Choice  and  Decision — Strengthening  Will  by 
I'ledges — Training  the  Judgment — Prejudice — Effect  of  Music 
on  Will — Conscience — Inter-relation  of  Intellect,  Feeling,  and 
Will. 

Chapter  XXIII. — Proper  Recitation  Balance 373 

Right  Method  of  Conducting  Recitation — Review  Steps — How 
to  Secure  Balance. 

PART   VII.— THE    SCHOOL   AND   ITS   ORGANIZATION. 

THE  WHERE  OF  TEACHING. 

Chapter  XXIV. — The  Scope  of  the  Sunday  School      ....     383 

What  the  Sunday  School  Is  and  Is  Not — Possibilities  of  the 
Sunday  School — The  Organization — The  School  Year. 

Chapter  XXV. — The  Plan  of  the  Sunday  School 390 

The  Time  of  the  Sunday  School — Music  In  the  Sunday  School — 
Departments — Selecting  Teachers — Age  and  Sex  of  Teachers — 
Paid  Teachers — Teachers'  Meetings. 

Chapter  XXVI. — The  Business  Side  of  the  Sunday  School:  Sug- 
gestions       401 

Officers — Superintendents — Secretaries — Use  of  Rewards,  In- 
centives, and  Punishments — Inadequacy  of  Sunday  School — 
Week-day  Instruction. 

PART  VIII.— THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION. 

THE  SOURCE   OF  TEACHING. 

Chapter  XXVII. — The  History  of  Religious  Education      .      .  413 

Chinese  Education — Egyptian — Babylonian — Assyrian — Phoeni- 
cian— Hebrew — Education  of  India — Medo-Persian  Education — 
Greek  —  Roman  —  Early  Christian  Schools  —  Education  from 
I'-Qurth  to  Thirteenth  Centuries. 


X  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

Chapter  XXVIII.— The  History  of  Religious   Education   (Con.)     438 
Origin  of  Third  Revival — Two  Chief  Types  of  Education  Seen — 
Other  Orders   In   Church — Early   tsclentlflc  Tendency — "Nature" 
Tendency — Psychological      Tendency — Sociological      Tendency — 
Modern  Educational   Systems — Industrial   Tendency. 

Chapter  XXIX. — The  History  of  the  Sunday  School  Movement  469 
Early  Origin — Beginning  of  Sunday  School  Movement  In  Amer- 
ica— Just  after  Uevolutlon — Civil  War  Period — Rise  of  Amer- 
ican Church  Sunday  School  Institute — International  Lessons — 
Modern  Commission  Movement — Fundamental  Principles  of 
Forward  Movement. 

Cahpter  XXX. — The    History   of   Lesson    Systems     ....     492 

History  of  Lesson  Systems — Uniformity  of  System — Possibilities 
and  Limitations  of  Heuristic  Method. 


PREFACE 

This  Text  Book  is  the  outcome  of  a  wide  demand  for  a  complete 
Handbook,  covering  fully  all  phases  of  Religious  Education  in  the 
Church.  There  was  no  such  book  hitherto  extant.  It  took  a  library 
of  some  thirty  or  more  volumes  to  cover  the  necessary  field,  as  laid 
down  in  the  "Standard  Course  for  Teacher-Training"  set  forth  by  the 
Joint  Commission  on  Sunday  Schools.  Such  reading  was  overwhelm- 
ing, unnecessary  (for  often  but  a  few  pages  or  precepts  of  a  writer 
applied  directly  to  Religious  Education),  and  costly  in  the  purchase 
of  so  many  volumes. 

The  author  prepared  a  smaller  book,  "Sunday  School  Teaching," 
a  compilation  of  authorities  covering  175  pages,  in  1903,  which  has  gone 
through  three  large  editions  in  five  years,  being  the  Guide  Book  for  the 
training  of  several  thousand  Sunday  School  teachers,  of  all  religious 
bodies.  Even  day  school  educators  found  it  suggestive  and  illuminat- 
ing.    It  will  be  continued  in  the  market. 

This  Text  Book,  however,  much  larger  and  more  complete,  is  de- 
signed (a)  as  a  Manual  for  Instruction  in  Theological  Seminaries, 
Colleges,  etc.;  (b)  for  the  guidance  of  Leaders  of  Teacher-Training 
Classes,  for  whom  additional  authorities  have  been  noted  at  the  open- 
ing of  each  chapter;  (c)  for  Clergy,  Superintendents,  and  Lay  teachers 
who  are  capable  and  willing  to  pursue  deeper  study  than  is  offered  by 
the  smaller  Manual. 

Authorities  have  been  generally  and  fully  quoted,  because  it  is 
felt  that  it  adds  greater  weight  to  give  the  statements  of  experts  in 
their  own  language.  All  credit  is  assigned  to  them,  and  the  thankful 
indebtedness  of  the  world  of  Religious  Education  is  unreservedly  ac- 
corded them.  Wm,  Walteb  Smith. 

June   1,    1908. 


FOREWORD 

The  nal-urnl  rnnn,  as  he  walks  abroad,  Hoea  at  first  only  the  natural 
world  and  its  people,  and  is  satisfiod  to  take  it  and  them  as  they  appear 
to  be;  or  is,  at  least,  until  the  AfU'rvvard  of  things  spiritual  coininences 
to  elaiin  its  place  in  his  aj)prehension.  Through  the  long  ages  men 
have  worked  on  in  nneoncerned  acceptation  of  things  as  they  are,  pusii- 
ing  and  hauling  to  make  them  go,  while  a  few  more  lliouglitful,  scatUned 
here  and  there  in  every  generation,  have  turned  aside  to  (piestion  more 
deeply  nature's  close  reserve  and  to  look  anew  into  the  human  heart. 
Ill  this  they  may  not  have  succeeded;  they  have  often  failed;  often 
enough  also  they  liave  found  their  time  unready  for  any  advance  in 
thought,  but  when  the  time  is  ready  their  studies  open  to  the  world 
new  vistas  of  invention  and  accomplishment  which  quicken  tiieir  gen- 
eration with  an  insight  that  brings  a  new  enthusiasm  of  life.  As  long 
as  any  unexplored  province  of  this  Afterward  is  left  to  us,  some  meas- 
ure of  this  enthusiasm,  some  extension  of  the  fulness  of  life,  may  still 
bo  ours. 

But  it  is  only  for  those  who  will  pay  the  price.  They  who  con- 
duct research  or  constructive  work  in  the  laboratory,  observatory, 
or  field  must,  as  an  iiulisiH^nsablc  prereijuisite,  accustom  tliemselves 
to  the  most  sensitive  adajitation  of  e3'es  and  fingers  that  they  may 
work  with  such  nicety  as  to  permit  no  indication  of  a  phenomenon, 
expected  or  unexpecttnl,  to  escape  their  observation,  nor  any  reaction 
to  vary  in  the  slightest  degree  from  the  previous  one  without  their 
notice.  No  preoccupation  of  mind  may  come  between  them  and  their 
work;  even  their  personal  ecpiation  must  at  times  be  mad«!  to  know  its 
l)lace  and  keep  it,  as  a  constant  correction  to  the  reading  of  their  in- 
struments. A  careless  motion  may  disarrange  the  slowly  maturing 
observation  of  weeks;  the  misturn  of  a  micrometer  screw  throw  out 
a  whole  progranune  of  geodetic  observations.  All  this  the  scientist 
knows,  and  if  he  att«Mnpts  to  do  original  work  he  trains  his  senses 
to  serve  him  in  harmony  with  the  extraordinary  refinement  of  the  work 
inulertaken  and  the  instruments  which  h(>  devises  and  uses.  The  casual 
visitor  looks  with  res|>ect  upon  these  shining  instruments  and  glances 
helplessly  through  the  formulas  that  express  the  results,  but  without 
a  tremor  of  that  agitation  which  has  so  often  prevented  the  physicist 


FOREWORD  xiii 

or  the  -ifltronoraer  from  completing  his  Cfiiculationfl  as  he  has  seen  them 
tending  toward  the  confirmation  of  a  new  law. 

Not  less  nice  must  be  the  adjustment  of  eye  and  ear  and  finger, 
nor  less  clairvoyant  the  perfMiption  of  the  artist  who  would  render  the 
subtle  harmonies  of  sound,  of  line  or  of  color  everywhere  about  in  the 
world,  indefinable  through  any  formula,  unsearchable  by  any  instru- 
ment except  the  human  mind. 

In  every  science  and  in  every  art  they  must  do  the  works  who 
would  explore  and  accomplish;  their  knowledge  must  be  the  first- 
hand acquaintance  of  the  tliorough-going  lover.  But  in  none  can  this 
intimate  service  lx»  less  spared  than  in  the  pursuit  of  the  study  upon 
which  the  book  before  us  enters,  a  study  which  is  at  once  a  science, 
calling  for  its  skilful  manipulation,  and  an  art,  calling  for  the  fine 
perception  and  sensitive  rendering  of  an  art.  It  has  relations  and 
agreements  with  these,  but  is  other  and  more  than  this,  for  we  are 
conscious  of  passing  beyond  the  limitations  of  both  science  and  art 
when  the  little  child  is  set  in  our  midst — a  consciousness  shining  clearly 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  not,  themselves,  strayed  too  far  from 
the  confines  of  the  kingdom  to  recognize  its  citizens  in  these  youngest 
of  the  angels. 

What  training,  then,  in  this  era  of  overshadowing  sciences  shall 
our  dull  perceptions  receive  that  we  may  rightly  experiment  with  an 
organism  so  constituted,  so  endowed;  and  how  shall  we  lead  the  child 
through  our  laboratory  with  so  light  a  touch  as  not  to  brush  away 
before  their  time  the  trailing  clouds  of  glory  with  which  it  comes  to 
us  from  its  home?  Books  and  lectures  will  teach  us  much  in  terms  of 
other  men's  experience;  class  room  work  will  add  to  them  the  grasp  of 
experience,  but,  it  must  be  said,  the  experience  of  limitations  rather 
than  of  possibilities,  dealing  as  we  have  to  here  with  the  restrained 
conditions  of  the  mind  in  confinement,  as  also  will  often  be  true  of 
the  family  life.  But  elsewhere  paths  through  untrodden  fields  of 
original  research  lie  open  to  us  as  straight  as  that  one  which,  for  Chris- 
tian, led  from  the  wicket  gate,  and  as  illuminating,  for  the  Interpreter's 
House  to  which  they  lead  is  the  heart  of  every  child.  We  may,  per- 
chance, think  ourselves  old  for  this  pilgrimage,  but  the  children  are 
always  new. 

Let  one  who  has  the  spirit  for  this  quest  and  who  would  know  for 
himself  the  possibilities,  the  depth,  and  the  resources  of  the  child-life, 
seek  the  companionship,  during  their  period  of  childhood  and  growing 
up,  of  even  a  few  boys  and  girls  who  have  received  their  due  inheritance 
of  vigorous  minds,  high  spirits,  and  sensitive  and  affectionate  natures. 
Let  such  an  one  bring  as  his  equipment  as  much  of  the  open  vision  of 
the  artist,  the  precision  of  the  scientist,  as  he  may  command  and  with 
these  some  aptitude  of  the  heart,  which  he  will  surely  need  for  follow- 
ing the  quest  where  their  arts  end  and  life  begins.  Each  child  thus 
known  will  be  to  him  a  new  revelation  with  its  unique  and  fresh  per- 
sonality, diverging  at  unexpected  points   from  the  fine  traits  common 


xiv  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

to  them  all.  They  will  see  the  light  of  each  day  in  the  brilliant  hues 
of  morning — the  morning  in  hues  far  beyond  the  rays  of  his  visible 
spectrum ;  the  simplest  things  of  nature  will  be  mysterious  to  tliem, 
but  the  most  mysterious  things  will  be  seen  with  clear  and  unperplexed 
vision  and  adequately  explained  by  referring  them  to  God.  They  turn 
this  clear  vision  on  their  little  world  and  its  people,  bestowing  a  wealth 
of  aflfection  on  their  friends,  idealizing  those  whom  they  love,  discrimi- 
nating acutely  against  others,  and  eager  in  their  overflowing  energy  of 
life,  joyous  and  wistful  by  turns,  to  apply  its  quality  to  everything 
about  them ;  to  pictures  which  thenceforth  become  to  them  real  scenes 
with  colors  which,  when  they  chance  upon  them  again  in  later  years, 
seem  to  be  those  of  a  child- world  of  their  imagining;  to  early  poems  and 
stories  which  weave  themselves  into  life  and  appear,  as  memory  turns 
back  to  them,  to  have  been  part  of  it.  They  will  endue  the  colors  of 
the  sky,  the  whiteness  and  shapes  of  the  clouds,  with  such  intimate 
personal  association  that  in  after  years  the  same  aspects  of  clouds  and 
sky  will  have  power  to  bring  back  at  unexpected  moments  the  well- 
recognized  vision  of  childhood,  transforming  the  light  of  the  common 
day  into  that  of  another  and  ideal  world,  and  as  quickly  fading.  This 
friend  will  often  feel  the  little  hand  that  clasps  his  own  quiver  with 
emotion.  Tlie  glow  of  the  spirit  in  the  eyes,  the  welling  up  of  tears  in 
the  presence  of  sudden  joy  or  unexpected  reproof — he  will  see  these 
and  other  changing  moods  flash  by  in  expressions  that  bring  out  the 
inexpressible  play  of  the  tender  modeling  of  the  face  and  he  will  lose 
no  faintest  reflected  light,  no  shadow  of  curls  on  the  firm  and  trans- 
parent flesh. 

And  yet,  unless  the  vision  that  shone  through  his  own  youth  is 
still  an  open  one  and  by  it  he  can  discover  and  interpret  these  shy  moods 
and  thoughts,  he  will  not  be  able  to  reenter  the  child's  world:  the  child 
will  never  tell,  and  the  curves  of  his  observation,  when  he  attempts  to 
plot  them,  will  as  likely  as  not  wander  off  into  fourth  dimensional 
space,  whither  he  cannot  follow  them  however  acute  his  mind  may  be — 
strange  fatality,  of  growing  away  from  our  own  best  selves,  which 
obliges  us  to  learn  anew  in  formal  studies  what  was  to  us  in  youth 
the  spontaneous  response  of  the  heart  to  life. 

This  friend  will  bring  an  unafTected  interest  to  the  discussion  of 
the  affairs  which  make  up  the  child's  little  round  of  life,  nor  need  he 
count  the  time  lost  nor  deem  it  an  idle  experience.  If  he  is  worthy 
the  child  will  know  it  by  intuitive  insight  and  will  yield  him  his  con- 
fidence, and  in  all  their  relations  he  will  illustrate  those  graces  whose 
acquiring  and  holding  now  taxes  our  grown-up  virtue — simplicity,  can- 
dor, sincerity,  and  courtesy  in  its  finer  aspects — these  and  others  all 
suflfused  with  what  the  artist  would  call  atmosphere,  the  indefinable 
charm  of  personality.  He  will  presently  see  these  qualities  diminish 
in  the  growing  child,  its  contact  with  the  world  blunting  their  fine  edges 
before  his  eyes  in  the  school  room  and  the  family.  He  will  become 
aware,  if  he  has  not  thought  of  it  before,  of  the  necessary  change  in 


bXJREWORD  XV 

the  child's  frank  outlook  on  the  world,  the  turning  inward  more  and 
more  of  the  ideals,  from  lack  of  sympathy,  from  fear  of  ridicule.  With 
the  loss  or  secretion  of  this  finer  sensibility  will  also  pass  that  in- 
genuousness with  parents  and  friends — the  instinctive  closing  of  the 
sensitive  plant  against  the  kindly  but  rough  touch  of  those  about  it. 
The  world  is  not  ingenuous  with  the  child,  why  then  should  he  continue 
to  be  frank  with  the  world?  People  do  not  mean  to  be  cruel  nor  are 
they  to  blame,  in  this  generation,  for  failing  in  the  artist's  perception 
of  beauty,  or  of  being  unconscious  of  the  finer  elements  of  human 
nature;  and  yet  neither  artist  nor  scientist,  attempting  really  much 
less  delicate  reactions,  would  expect  to  work  thus  even  with  inanimate 
substiinces.  Unthinking  people  having  the  care  of  the  child,  as  serenely 
unconscious  of  the  exquisite  poise  of  the  sensitive  little  spirit  as  a  coal 
beaver  might  be  of  the  adjustment  of  a  dividing  engine,  will  in  an 
hour  efTect  a  disillusionment  which  no  teaching  can  ever  restore.  Few 
parents  can  refrain  from  speaking  in  the  presence  of  their  children, 
to  visitors,  of  the  awkward  age  and  its  manners,  or  will  hesitate  to 
refer  to  their  early  punishments.  Few  teachers  can  refrain  from 
telling  the  class  some  story  of  tortures — to  be  lodged  in  the  mind  at  its 
most  impressionable  age  and  held  there  throughout  life;  nor  would 
such  a  teacher  spare  her  sarcasm  at  the  expense  of  some  little  girl  whose 
quality  of  mind  is  yet  immeasurably  beyond  her  own  point  of  view. 
In  a  hundred  other  ways  which  all  seem  to  attack  the  child's  natural 
acceptation  of  the  world  as  virtuous,  the  friend  of  the  child  will  see 
the  painstaking  instructions  given  emptied  of  its  living  content — its 
only  point  of  real  contact,  by  the  inconsistency  of  the  teacher.  0 
shallow  minds  and  hearts,  unwittingly  exposed  to  the  serious  eyes  that 
front  you :  how  would  the  graces  flourish  in  the  world  if  at  the  critical 
moment  the  teacher  could  realize  the  words  of  Christ  and  change  places 
with  the  learner! 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  association  between  the  child  and  a 
friend,  here  assumed,  withdrawn  for  the  time  from  the  disturbance  of 
the  world,  opportunity  will  be  given  for  some  training  at  once  natural 
and  spiritual  to  which  the  child's  spirit  is  entitled.  Each  will  have 
much  to  learn  from  the  other  and  there  will  be  constant,  if  unconscious, 
teaching  on  both  sides;  the  fine  reactions  under  this  skilful  handling 
bringing  forth  results  which  the  angels  will  desire  to  look  into.  Living 
its  own  inner  life  straight  on  as  it  surely  will  do,  the  child  will  form 
its  ideals  and  evolve  its  personality,  we  know  not  whence  nor  how,  by 
some  unerring  selection  of  its  own.  We  are  not  to  impose  the  limits 
of  our  notions  upon  it  but  to  tjike  heed  lest  our  own  notions  mingle 
too  much  with  it.  Tlie  period  of  morning  calm,  its  age  of  faith,  passes 
quickly  into  a  period  of  questioning  and  thence  to  an  age  of  reason. 
How  much  of  daring  construction  of  the  substance  of  life  other  and 
different  from  our  teaching  is  going  on  in  the  busy  little  heads  during 
these  periods  and  what  its  import  in  the  character  that  will  finally 
emerge,  even  the  most  trusted  friend  cannot  be  told,  but  recalling  his 


xvi  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

own  constructive  period  he  will  look  with  awe  upon  this  process  of  life 
in  another:  he  will  realize  as  never  before  the  almost  infinite  possi- 
bilities rising  within  the  unspoiled  child,  confirming  thus  his  surmise 
that  the  child-spirit  is  the  one  rare,  certain  thing  in  the  world  that 
takes  directly  hold  on  heaven.  The  values  of  his  picture  of  life  will  be 
restored:  its  proper  atmosphere  will  return.  Wordsworth's  Intima- 
tions will  no  longer  appear  to  him  transcendental,  nor  Pater's  Child  in 
the  House  fanciful.  He  may  refine  on  them  in  his  thought  as  they 
refine  on  the  Child  literature  of  the  day.  He  will  have  used  the 
laboratory  for  what  it  teaches  and  return  to  life.  The  child  will  no 
longer  be  to  him  a  specimen — the  proper  subject  of  expert  books,  nor 
he  the  teacher  of  old  who  has  but  seen  children  as  bushes  walking.  As 
he  leaves  the  Interpreter's  House  in  this  sweet  companionship  he  will 
be  more  sure  than  he  was  at  the  wicket-gate  of  a  sight  of  The  City 
from  the  Delectable  Mountains.  Together  they  will  trudge  along  the 
pilgrimage  and  the  little  child  shall  lead  him — enlightened,  inspired, 
by  a  new  and  living  way.  Chables  William  Stouqhton. 


PART  I. 

The  Scope  and  Aim  of  Religious  Instruction 

The  Why  of  Teaching 


ClIArTKli'  1. 

THE  AIM    OR   PURPOSE   OF   EDUCATION. 
SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Note  : —  Soe  Bibliography  in   (he  Appendix  for  authors,   publishers,  and 
prices  of  all  Reference  Itooks. 
I'p  Through  Chii,i>!iooi>.  IlubhtU.  pp.  3-74. 
EnrcATiox  in  Rei-k!10n  .\.ni)  Muk.m.s.  Cor.  \)p.  119 — 
The  Meamnc;  oh*  Eon  atio.n.  liutlcr.  pp.  :{-34. 
The  Fou.\D.\Tin\s  of  PIiucation.  Scilrii.  pp.  172-182. 
Psychologic  Foi^ndatio.ns  ok  Edtcation.   Ilnrria.   pp.  204-270. 
The  Teaching  ok  Kihi.e  Classes,  .s'rc.  pp.  1  ■'j. 
Entering  on  Eife.  Grikir.  pp.  1-20. 
How  TO  Plan  the  Lesson.  Hrmon.  Chap.  1. 
Educational  Aims  and  Values,  flantius.  pp.  5-20. 
Talks  to  Teachers.  James,  pp.  29-32. 
Education  and  Like.  Baker,  pp.  2-18. 
IOducation.    Sfxnecr.    pp.    1-37.    119-120. 
Foundation  Principles.  Moore,  pp.  9-18. 
Destiny   ok  Man.    Fi.yke.   pp.   3.">-70. 
My  Pedagogic  Creed,  netcrii.  pp.  3-4. 

Man's  Five-Fold   Educational   Inheritance. 

President  Butler  has  divided  Man's  Educational  Needs  into 
(1)  His  Scientific  Inlicritance,  by  which  he  means  the  widest 
erudition  in  the  knowledge  of  .Nature  and  of  Scientific  Develop- 
ment; to  which  dry  ]\Iatlieniatics  is  but  the  lower  rung  of  the 
ladder.  (2)  His  Historical  Inheritance  of  Literature  and  Bi- 
ography, the  broad,  wide  vision  that  looks  down  through  the 
Vista  of  the  Past:  to  which  the  study  of  Language  is  l)ut  the 
key  of  interpretation,  (o)  His  Political  Liheritance,  those 
institutional  factors  which  have  influenced  his  place  in  the  great 
family  of  nations :  the  vast  element  of  civilization  and  of  society 
under  which  we  act.  (4)  His  Aesthetic  or  Artistic  Inheritance: 
that  feeling  for  the  sublime,  the  picturesque,  the  beautiful, 
which  is  so  akin  to  the  deepest  religious  life.  (5)  His  Keligious 
Inheritance :  that  seeks  a  response  to  those  high  spiritual  ideals, 


4  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

which   the   toaclier   is   to   satisfy   hy   lofty   example   and   nohle 

precept. 

The  Factors  or  Means. 

The  factors  or  means  hy  which  a  child  is  educated  accord- 
ing to  its  fivefold  needs  are:  (1)  The  Family,  which  hy  example 
and  precept  is  extremely  potent,  and  where  the  intimacy  of  con- 
tact is  powerful  in  determining  imitation.  (2)  The  School, 
which  is  chielly  of  intellectual  value.  (3)  Business  life,  leading 
to  hahits  of  system  and  method.  (4)  Society,  where  manners 
and  etiquette,  touching  social  relationship  and  intercourse  are 
bred  as  second  nature.  (5)  The  Church  and  Keligious  Educa- 
tion, dealing  more  especially  with  moral  knowledge. 
The  Object  or  Aim  of  the  Church  School. 

The  Purpose,  or  Aim,  or  ()l)jeci  of  the  scliool  lies  at  the 
bottom  of  all  right  Education.  It  is  because  the  Aim  of  the 
Sunday  School  has  not  been  clear  heretofore  that,  in  so  many 
cases,  the  Sunday  School  has  been  a  failure.  The  great  dis- 
covery of  the  past  century  has  been  the  Discovery  of  the  Child. 
Before  that  there  were  but  two  factors  in  Education :  The 
Teacher  and  the  Material.  Since  the  days  of  the  Educational 
Eeformers  there  have  been  three  factors:  The  Teacher,  the  Ma- 
trial,  and  the  Child.  With  the  discovery  of  the  Ciiild  came  a 
new  realization  of  Education.  The  standpoint  changed.  There 
are  still  many  one-sided  or  partial  aims  held  by  some  persons 
which,  when  followed,  give  a  very  imperfect  and  unsatisfactory 
Education. 

Some  have  considered  that  Education  was  for  "information 
only,"  and  have  over-emphasized,  therefore,  the  goal  in  their 
selection  of  material.  If  the  aim  of  education  be  more  knowl- 
edge, then  the  success  of  a  school  will  be  measured  by  the  rapid- 
ity with  whicli  the  pupils  increase  their  stock  of  learning.  At- 
tention will  be  paid  to  the  mere  details  and  facts  of  knowledge. 
The  children  will  become  encyclopaedias  of  general  information. 
Like  the  products  of  many  of  our  young  ladies'  "finishing 
schools,"  they  will  have  a  smattering  of  a  great  many  things, 
thorough  knowledge  of  none,  and  no  vital  priiuii>les.  When 
knowledge  comes  first,  true  righteousness  and  the  wliole  range  of 
virtues  are  minimized  or  set  aside. 


Till-:  Al.M   (tli    ITUroSK   OF   KDrCATION  H 

Otliors  would  claim  that  the  chief  essential  in  Education 
is  "Power."  11'  power  be  sought,  then  the  doing  side  must  be 
emi)liasized  and  a  general  enlargement  of  the  narrow  range  of 
information  be  ado])ted.  As  Coe  has  put  it:  "Instead  of  the 
clear,  cold  logic-engine,  which  mere  intellectualism  regards  as 
the  proper  product  of  education,  the  drift  of  popular  thought  is 
now  toward  another  kind  of  mental  engine,  the  kind  that  keeps 
the  practical  machinery  of  life  in  motion."  Average  Sunday 
.School  Teachers  are  very  a])t  to  select  some  one  aim  in  religious 
education  and  over-emphasize  it.  One  school  will  lay  over-stress 
upon  the  Catechism  and  subordinate  the  other  elements  of  a  well- 
rounded  education  to  the  study  of  this  Formula  of  the  Faith. 
Another  school  will  pay  little  regard  to  the  Catechism  and  hold 
the  essential  of  the  sciiool  to  be  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible,  and 
will  test  the  results  of  the  Teachers'  work  by  the  examinations 
held.  Still  another  scliool  will  gauge  the  efficiency  of  the  Sun- 
day School  by  the  number  brought  to  Christ  in  (\)nfirmation, 
and  will  expect  a  direct  ratio  l)etween  the  Sunday  School  and 
the  Confirmation  class. 

All  these  aims  are  partial  and  imperfect.  Education  is  a 
broader  and  wider  thing  than  any  one  or  two  of  these  elements 
would  indicate.  We  are  concerned  with  the  whole  child,  the 
whole  man,  in  his  attitude  toward  life,  not  merely  with  his  atti- 
tude toward  the  Confirmation  class  or  toward  Religion,  or  the 
Churcli. 

Definitions  of  Education. 

There  are  other  definitions  of  Education  which  indit-ate 
a  broader  process.  Here  is  one  from  Webster's  Dictionary: 
"Education  implies  not  so  much  the  communication  of  knowl- 
edge, as  the  discipline  of  the  intellect,  the  establishment  of  the 
principles,  and  the  regulation  of  the  heart."  Here  we  have  a 
practical  division  under  the  old  trinity,  Intellect,  Feelings,  and 
Will,  the  three  angles  of  a  complete  triangle.  Dr.  Wickersham 
gives  another:  "Education  is  the  process  of  developing  or  draw- 
ing out  the  faculties  of  the  individual  man,  and  training  him  for 
the  various  functions  of  life."  Tomkins  puts  it  this  way :  "Teach- 
ing is  the  process  by  which  one  man  from  set  purposes  produces 
the  life-unfolding  process  in  another."    The  late  Bishop  Hunt- 


6  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

in<jton  states  it  tersely:  "Education  is  not  tlie  traijiing  of  the 
mind,  but  the  training  of  tiie  man."  Josepli  Cook  once  said: 
"Educate  a  man's  body  alone  and  you  have  a  l)rute ;  educate  his 
mind  alone  and  you  have  a  sko])tic ;  educate  his  si)irit  alone  and 
you  have  a  bigot;  educate  his  body,  and  his  mind,  and  his  sj)irit, 
and  you  liave  the  noblest  work  of  God — a  man.*'  Professor  Wil- 
liam James  states  it  thus:  "Education  cannot  be  better  de- 
scribed than  l)y  calling  it  the  organization  of  acquired  habits  of 
conduct  and  tendencies  of  l)chavior."  President  Nicliolas  Mur- 
ray Butler  calls  it  a  gradual  adjustment  to  the  spiritual  posses- 
sions of  the  race.  J.  P.  Munroe  says  the  question  to  be  asked 
at  the  end  of  an  educational  step  is  not,  What  has  the  child 
learned?  but,  What  has  the  child  become?  All  of  these  defini- 
tions and  many  similar  ones  from  the  great  educators  indicate 
the  same  grasp  of  the  true  meaning  of  Education.  That  is  the 
result  to-day  of  the  experience  of  educational  reformers  of  the 
past  century. 

Professor  Dewey's  Broad  Statement. 

"All  education  ])rocecds  by  the  i)articipation  of  tlie  indi- 
vidual in  the  social  consciousness  of  the  race.  This  process  be- 
gins unconsciously  almost  at  birth,  and  is  continually  shaping 
the  individual's  powers,  saturating  liis  consciousness,  forming  his 
habits,  training  his  ideas,  and  arousing  his  feelings  and  emotions. 
Through  this  unconscious  education  the  individual  gradually 
comes  to  share  in  tbe  intellectual  and  moral  resources  wliicli 
humanity  has  succeeded  in  getting  together.  He  becomes  an 
inlieritor  of  tlie  funded  capital  of  civilization.  Tlie  most  formal 
and  technical  education  in  the  world  cannot  safely  depart  from 
this  general  process.  It  can  only  organize  it;  or  differentiate  it 
in  some  particular  direction. 

"The  only  true  education  comes  through  the  stimulation  of 
the  child's  powers  by  the  demands  of  the  social  situations  in 
which  he  finds  himself.  Through  these  demands  he  is  stimu- 
lated to  act  as  a  member  of  a  unity,  to  emerge  from  his  original 
narrowness  of  action  and  feeling,  and  to  conceive  of  himself 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  welfare  of  the  group  to  which  he 
belongs.  Through  the  responses  which  others  make  to  his  ac- 
tivities he  comes  to  know  what  these  mean  in  social  terms.   For 


THE  AIM  OR  PrnrOSE  OF  EDUCWTION  7 

iiistiince,  through  tlio  rospoiise  which  is  made  to  the  child's  in- 
stinctive hahhliiigs  the  child  comes  to  know  wdiat  those  hahhlings 
mean  ;  they  are  transormed  into  articulate  language,  and  thus 
the  child  is  introduced  into  the  consolidated  wealth  of  ideas  and 
emotions  which  are  now  summed  up  in  language." 

This  educational  process  has  two  sides — one  pvsychological 
and  one  sociological ;  and  neither  one  can  he  suhordinated  to 
the  other  or  neglected  without  evil  results  following.  Of  these 
two  sides,  the  psychological  is  the  hasis.  The  child's  own  in- 
stincts and  powers  furnish  the  material  and  give  the  starting 
point  for  all  education.  Save  as  the  efforts  of  the  educator  con- 
nect with  some  activity  which  the  child  is  carrying  on  of  his  own 
initiative  independent  of  the  educator,  education  heeomes  re- 
duced to  a  pressure  from  without.  It  may,  indeed,  give  certain 
external  results,  hut  cannot  truly  he  called  educative.  With- 
out insight  into  the  psychological  structure  and  activities  of  the 
individual,  the  educative  process  will,  therefore,  be  haphazard 
and  arbitrary.  If  it  chances  to  coincide  with  the  child's  activity 
it  will  get  a  leverage;  if  it  does  not,  it  will  result  in  friction,  or 
disintegration,  or  arrest  of  the  child  nature. 

Knowledge  of  social  conditions,  of  the  present  state  of 
civilization,  is  necessary  in  order  properly  to  interpret  the 
child's  powers.  The  child  has  his  owai  instincts  and  tendencies, 
hut  we  do  not  know  what  these  mean  until  we  can  translate 
them  into  their  social  equivalents.  We  must  be  able  to  carry 
tliem  back  to  a  social  past  and  see  them  as  the  inheritance  of 
previous  race  activities.  We  must  also  be  able  to  project  them 
into  the  future  to  see  what  tlieir  outcome  and  end  will  be.  In 
the  illustration  Just  used,  it  is  the  ability  to  see  in  the  child's 
babblings  the  promise  and  ])otency  of  a  future  social  intercourse 
and  conversation  wiiich  enables  one  to  deal  in  the  proper  w^ay 
with  that  instinct. 

The  psychological  and  social  sides  are  organically  related, 
and  education  cannot  he  regarded  as  compromises  between  the 
two,  or  a  superimposition  of  one  upon  the  other.  We  are  told 
that  the  psychological  definition  of  education  is  barren  and 
formal — that  it  gives  us  only  the  idea  of  a  development  of  all 
the  mental  powers  without  giving  us  any  idea  of  the  use  to  whic-h 
these  powers  are  put.    On  the  other  hand,  it  is  urged  that  the 


8  HELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

social  definition  of  odufation,  as  getting  adjusted  to  civilization, 
makes  of  it  a  forced  and  external  process,  and  results  in  subor- 
dinating the  freedom  of  the  individual  to  tlie  ])reconceived  social 
and  political  status. 

Drawbridge  says  that  the  fact  that  we  can  glibly  repeat  the 
word  is  no  proof  that  we  understand  its  meaning.  Words  are 
but  counters  to  represent  ideas.  Wliat  idea  does  the  word 
"teach"  convey? 

Every  book  which  deals  with  tlie  subject  of  education  uses 
the  word,  but  very  few  authors  pause  to  define  the  idea.  Yet 
surely,  before  proceeding  to  deal  with  the  subject  of  teaching, 
it  is  necessary  to  define  what  tlie  term  means.  What  idea,  then, 
does  the  word  convey? 

When  a  schoolmaster  tells  his  class  to  learn  up  such  and 
such  a  lesson  for  next  time,  he  may  be  fulfilling  one  of  tlie  duties 
of  a  schoolmaster,  but  he  cannot  be  said  to  be  teaching.  He  is 
merely  commanding  them  to  teach  themselves — Commanding  is 
not  teaching. 

When  he  liears  the  lesson  in  class,  if  he  does  nothing  more 
than  hear  what  tlie  boys  iiave  taught  themselves,  lie  cannot  be 
said  to  teach  them — Hearing  is  not  teaching. 

If  he  lectures  upon  some  subject  in  such  a  way  that  the 
class  learn  nothing,  he  cannot  be  said  to  have  taught  anything, 
and  consequently  he  has  not  acted  as  a  teacher — Telling  is  not 
teaching. 

There  are  three  essentials :  a  teacher,  a  lesson,  and  a  pupil 
to  be  taught.  If  the  pupil  has  not  been  taught  anything,  the 
"teacher"  cannot  be  said  to  have  justified  his  claim  to  the  title, 
because  a  teacher  is  one  who  teaches. 

The  process  by  which  the  lesson  is  taught  is  a  dilficult  art, 
built  upon  scientific  principles.  Yet  strangely  enough  there 
are  still  many  (so-called)  "teachers"  who  have  not  learned  how 
to  teach,  and  many  more  who  do  not  even  know  what  the  word 
itself  means. 

Every  teacher  in  our  Public  Elementary  Schools,  on  the 
contrary,  has  passed  dilhcult  examinations,  not  only  in  the  sub- 
jects which  it  will  be  his  life's  work  to  teach,  but  also  in  the 
theory  and  practice  of  the  art  of  teaching. 


THE  AIM   OK   rURPOSK  (>F   KDlt 'ATK  »\  9 

^^'(■  have  Hot,  liowcMT,  vet  dcdiicd  what  is  meant  by  tlii' 
word,  Mhicli  we  all  have  so  i"ro(|nontl_y  upon  our  lii)s  to-day. 

.lacotot  o.\])lain(Ml  that  "to  teach  is  to  cause  another  to 
learn."  This  is  an  incomplete  definition,  because  nothing  more 
is  imi)lied  tlum  a  cane  and  a  lesson-l)ook ;  whereas  every  good 
teacher  endeavors  to  dis})eiise  with  both  oi'  these  ancient  aids 
to  learning.  To  "cause  a  pupil  to  learn"  is  only  half  of  the 
teacher's  duty,  the  other  half  consists  in  teaching.  It  is  part 
of  one's  duty  to  ensure  that  one's  pupils  learn,  hut  the  other 
and  no  less  important  ])art  of  one's  busiiiess  is  to  practise  the 
art  of  teaching.  The  writer,  when  in  a  certain  class  at  one  of 
our  great  public  schools,  was  com])elled  to  learn  Euclid.  But  it 
was  not  until  he  moved  uj)  into  another  class  that  any  attempt 
was  made  to  teach  him  Euclid.  Thus  in  the  former  case  he  was 
forced  to  learn  by  heart  certain  words,  which  conveyed  no  mean- 
ing to  him ;  in  the  latter  he  was  taught  to  enjoy  exercising  his 
reasoning  powers,  and  he  acquired  knowledge.  In  the  latter 
case  alone  was  he  taught  Euclid. 

Someone  has  said  that  "every  self-educated  man  had  a  fool 
for  his  schoolmaster."  This  is  true  of  those  who  regularly  at- 
tended school,  rather  than  of  those  who  did  not. 

Calling  one's  self  a  schoolmaster,  and  claiming  to  be  a 
teaclier,  are  not  the  same  as  knowing  how  to  teach.  There  is  a 
vulgar  proverb  which  tells  us  "not  to  judge  an  article  by  the 
label  on  the  box." 

Professor  Hart  im])roved  upon  Jacotot's  definition  of  teach- 
ing, when  he  explained  that  it  consists  in  Causing  another  to 
know.  A  better  description  still,  however,  would  be,  Taking 
one  living  idea  at  a  time  from  one's  own  mind,  and  planting  it 
so  that  it  will  grow  in  the  mind  of  another.  To  teach  is  not  to 
force  another  to  cram  up  certain  words,  but  rather  to  impart 
artistically  living  and  growing  ideas,  together  with  the  wisdom 
to  employ  those  ideas  usefully. 

"Tlie  chief  difference  between  the  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and  that  of  the  ecclesiastics  of  His  day,  was  that  Christ  im- 
planted germinal  thoughts  in  the  souls  of  men,  whereas  the 
Scribes  and  Rabbis  quoted  words  from  the  Talmud." 

Professor  See  says:  "It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between 
the  science  and  art  of  teaching.    In  science  we  know  that  we 


10  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

may  know.  In  art,  we  know  that  we  may  produce.  The  science 
of  teachinf?  has  to  do  with  the  formulated  principles  of  teach- 
ing. The  art  of  teaching  has  to  do  with  the  application  and  use 
of  those  principles  in  the  actual  instruction  of  students.  A 
teacher  may  know  the  art  of  teaching  without  the  science.  The 
ideal  teacher  will  have  both.  As  James  says,  sciences  never 
generate  arts  directly  out  of  themselves.  The  science  of  logic 
never  made  a  man  believe  rightly  and  the  science  of  ethics  never 
made  a  man  ])ehave  rightly.  The  most  such  sciences  can  do  is 
to  help  us  to  catch  ourselves  up  and  check  ourselves  more  ar- 
ticulately after  we  have  made  mistakes." 
Dr.  Brown's  Definition. 

Dr.  Marianna  C.  Brown,  in  her  l)0()k,  How  to  Plan  rut: 
Lesson,  says:  "What,  then,  is  our  end  or  aim  in  Sunday  School 
teaching?  Let  us  for  the  present  express  it  as,  'To  quicken 
spiritual  life  and  insight,  and  to  give  knowledge  and  understand- 
ing of  the  means  of  spiritual  growth.'  Our  aim,  then,  is  spir- 
itual. Geography  and  history,  as  such,  are  not  necessarily  spir- 
itual. Bible  geography  and  Bible  history  can  be  taught  as  mere 
geography  and  history,  without  any  spiritual  significance.  If, 
then,  our  aim  in  Sunday  School  teaching  is  to  give  spiritual 
thoughts  and  spiritual  truths,  we  see  that  geography,  history, 
and  literature,  even  though  they  be  Bible  geography,  liistory, 
and  literature,  can  only  be  means  to  our  end.  It  is  our  work  to 
find  the  spiritual  thought  which  we  wish  to  convey  to  our 
scholars,  and  to  so  study  and  use  our  historical  or  other  material 
that  it  becomes  a  means  or  vehicle  for  conveying  that  thouglit." 

Professor  Thorndike  urges  that :  "Education  as  a  whole 
should  make  human  beings  wish  each  other  well,  should  increase 
the  sum  of  human  energy  and  happiness  and  decrease  the  sum 
of  discomfort  of  the  imman  beings  that  are  or  will  be,  and 
should  foster  the  higher,  impersonal  })leasures.  The  oppor- 
tunities of  the  school  may  be  grouped  as:  (1)  Opportunities  for 
training  in  moral  action  itself  through  behavior  in  the  class- 
room and  in  connection  with  other  school  activities  over  which 
the  teacher  has  some  degree  of  control.  (8)  Opportunities  for 
specific  moral  instruction  other  than  training  in  moral  action 
itself,  and  (3)  Opportunities  for  training  in  moral  appreciation 
and  ideals  through  the  regular  school  studies." 


THE  AIM  on  ruuro.sE  of  education  ii 

Kuskin,  in  his  Traffic,  strikes  the  same  key-note:  "The 
entire  otgect  of  true  education  is  to  make  people  not  merely  do 
tiie  right  things,  but  enjoy  tlie  riglit  things — not  merely  indus- 
trious, but  to  love  industry — not  merely  learned,  but  to  love 
knowledge — not  merely  pure,  hut  to  love  purity — not  merely 
just,  hut  to  hunger  and  thirst  after  justice." 
Our  Educational  Ideal. 

I'rdft'ssor  Thriiig,  the  English  educator,  gives  a  definition 
whicli  best  e\})resses  our  ideal.  It  is  that  the  ''Purpose  of  Ke- 
ligious  Education  is  to  build  up  a  character  ellicient  for  tlie 
best." 


What  is  Character  ?  William  James,  the  great  })sychologist, 
the  man  who  writes  psychology  as  interestingly  as  a  novel,  de- 
fines Character  as:  "a  bundle  of  habits." 

What  is  "Force  of  Characfer"?  Suppose  a  social  gathering 
of  young  people  into  wliich  some  young  lady  whom  all  have 
known  has  entered.  She  has  nodded  to  her  friends  and  then 
strangely  gone  aside  by  herself  alone.  Someone  asks,  "Why?" 
The  reply  is  that,  though  she  is  a  very  nice  young  lady,  she  has 
no  force  of  character.  The  trouble  with  the  Sunday  Sehools 
in  the  ])ast  had  been  this  very  failure  to  gras])  the  essential  ob- 
ject of  the  Sunday  School,  i.e.,  the  development  of  a  "character 
efficient  for  the  best." 

Brotherhood  means  social  service.  Xo  one  will  go  to 
Heaven  alone;  no  one  will  save  himself  alone.  The  whole  idea 
of  Christianity  and  of  the  Gospel  is  service.  Now  service  cannot 
be  learned  by  precept,  by  sermon.s,  by  intellectual  mandates. 
Christian  living  can  only  be  learned  by  Christian  doing,  and 
Christian  character,  i.e..  Christian  habits,  must  lie  done  and 
lived  day  by  day  if  tlie  child  is  to  he  a  real  Christian,  that  is,  a 
Christ  man.  "If  a  man  does  what  is  useful  and  right,  he  will 
soon  gain  proper  ideas  of  social  efliciency  and  (»f  morals.  If  he 
learns  to  do  the  right  thing  in  a  thousand  particular  situations 
he  will,  so  far  as  he  is  ca])able,  gain  the  power  to  see  what  act 
a  new  situation  demands."  As  Tiiorndike  puts  it:  "'{'here  is  no 
way  of  becoming  self-controlled  e.\ce])t,  by  to-day,  to-morrow, 
and  all  the  days  in  each  conflict,  controlling  one's  self.  Xo  one 
becomes  honest  save  by  telling  the  truth,  or  trustworthv  save  bv 


12  RELKJIOUS  EDUCATION 

fulfilling  each  obligation  which  he  accepts.  No  one  may  win 
the  spirit  of  love  and  service,  who  does  not  day  by  day  and 
hour  by  hour  do  each  act  of  kinchiess  and  help  which  chance  puts 
in  his  way  or  his  own  tlioughtfulness  can  discover.  The  mind 
does  not  give  something  for  nothing.  The  price  of  a  disciplined 
intellect  and  will  is  eternal  vigilance  in  the  formation  of 
habits." 
Every  Lesson  Must  Function  in_JiaH*9» 

The  application  of  the  principles  behind  the  definition  of 
Education  as  the  building  up  of  a  "character  efficient  for  the 
best/'  means  that  every  lesson  taught  in  the  Day  School  or  the 
Sunday  School  must  function  in  the  daily  present-day  life  of 
the  scholar.  It  is  not  a  lesson  of  principles  and  precepts  for 
some  far-off  day  in  life,  but  it  is  a  lesson  of  application  to  the 
daily  life  between  Sundays,  to  the  life  before  ne.ri_Blind^fr-"lt 
means  tiiat  the  teacher  should  deliberately  supply  outlets  for 
self-activity,  opportunities  for  gervice,  applications  oTthe  lesson 
to  the  child's  own  personal  conduct  inHionesty,  truthfulness, 
purity,  and  right-mindedness.  There  may  be  any  amount  of 
"Education,"  in  the  old  sense  of  knowledge,  without  the  slight- 
est result  in  the  building  of  Christian  character.  Character, 
therefore,  is  being,  imt  talking;  is  living,  not  knowing. 
Three  Elements  in  All  Education. 

It  has  l)een  said  that  the  old  Education  stood  for  the  Heart- 
side,  while  the  new  Education  stands  for  tbe  Head-side.  In  one 
way  this  is  a  mistake — the  new  Education  does  not  stand  merely 
for  the  Head-side.  All  Education  should  stand  for  the  three- 
fold, or  rounded.  Education  of  the  complete  man  in  his  Feelings 
(Heartside),  Intellect  (Head-side),  and  Will  (Doing-side).  A 
locomotive  might  be  a  perfect  mechanism  of  tbe  Baldwin  loco- 
motive Works.  It  might  have  cost  $20,()()0.  It  might  be  a 
splendid  mass  of  iron  and  steel  and  wood,  and  yet  that  engine 
would  be  worse  than  useless,  a  mere  waste  of  money,  if  standing 
cold  on  the  tracks.  There  must  be  a  fire  in  the  firebox.  That 
fire  corresponds  to  tbe  Heart-side.  All  (Christians  should  be 
whole-hearted.  But  that  engine  with  the  Heart-side  only, 
without  intelligent  guidance,  with  the  fire  in  the  fire-box  turn- 
ing the  water  into  steam,  would  only  run  wild  ujwn  the  track. 


Tin:  AIM  OK  riRPosK  of  kdicatiox  1M 

would  uiily  meet  its  own  (lestriictioii.  Heart-rule  is  .Mob-rule 
the  world  over.  Over  the  Heart  must  stand  the  Head,  and  so 
over  the  fire  in  the  engine  sits  the  engineer  with  his  hand  npon 
the  lever.  And  still  he  may  say,  "11"  I  open  that  lever,  the 
engine  will  go."  Hut  he  may  never  open  it.  There  may  he  no 
eonnection  hetween  right- feeling  and  right-thinking.  A  lessoji 
may  be  taught  in  the  school  which  stirs  the  })upil  and  which  gives 
him  intellectual  material,  but  it  may  never  function  in  liis  life. 
.\  congregation  may  hear  a  stirring  missionary  address.  They 
may  learn  a  considerable  amount  about  the  mission  field,  but  the 
connection  may  not  be  mad(>  which  will  secure  an  adequate  col- 
lection. As  Dr.  Duhring  puts  it  facetiously:  "The  dead  Indian 
may  drop  into  the  plate,  instead  of  the  live  Goddess  of  Liberty," 
the  copper  penny  in  place  of  the  silver  coin.  There  should  be 
tlie  parallelogram  of  forces,  right-feeling  plus  right-thinking,  the 
resultant  right-doing,  i.e.,  character.  And  so  the  engineer  pulls 
over  the  lever  and  the  engine  goes  out  upon  the  track,  pulling 
the  train  after  it.  The  feelings,  the  emotions  in  life  correspond 
to  the  ])ush  given  to  the  coasting-bob  upon  the  hill,  the  starter 
to  set  it  going.  After  the  start  comes  the  intellectual  guidance, 
and  the  combination  of  the  two  gives  the  result.  These  three 
elements — intellect,  feeling,  and  will — should  characterize  all 
Education.   Without  all  three,  any  lesson  is  but  partially  taught. 

An    ideal   of   Education    Needful  for  Good   Work. 

Every  Teacher  must  have  some  definite  ideal  before  he  be- 
gins the  work  of  religious  education  ;  otherwise  he  works  to  no 
purpose.  Professor  Page  has  used  the  illustration  of  the  sculp- 
tor, freeing  the  exquisite  statue  from  the  uncarved  block  of 
marble,  an  image  standing  out  clear  and  life-like  to  him  before 
ever  he  touches  the  block  with  his  cliisel.  Knowing  beforehand 
precisely  what  he  wants,  he  directs  each  stroke  with  consummate 
skill,  making  no  mistakes,  pruning  off  no  chips  that  might  mar 
his  finished  work.  But  tiie  pseudo-artist,  the  bungler,  cuts  where 
he  should  not,  and  leaves  many  a  rough  protuberance  of  un- 
sightly deformity.  The  one  sees  his  ideal  of  beauty  before  it  is 
liberated  from  the  stone.  The  other  only  knows  perfection  when 
it  is  presented  to  him,  having  no  conception  to  guide  him  in  its 
production.    The  Sunday  School  Teacher  who  sets  to  work  to 


14  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

produce  a  fully  developed  Cliaraeter,  will  watch  every  oj)por- 
tunity  of  right  influence,  or  right  teaching,  or  right  subject- 
matter,  or  right  method,  bringing  to  his  aid  all  the  correlated 
secular  and  home  influence,  wliich  will  assist  in  develo])ing  riglit 
principles  in  the  child's  social,  moral,  and  spiritual  natures. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND   DISCISSK  )\. 

[sUCi(iKSTEI)   BY   PROK.    HritUKLL.T 

1.  What  Aim  would  you  set  for  Sunday  School  Tcacliinj;?    For  F'du- 

eation? 

2.  Discuss  the  Essentials  of  a   Chariictcr  "dficicnt   for  f^ood." 

3.  "Education  is  self-evolution."    Explain. 

4.  Why  is  it  that  some  reliiiious  persons  arc  very  unpleasant  in  their 

own  homes  V 
n.  When  you  jiive  a  Sunday  School  Lesson,  are  you  meeting  a  need 
of  the  child's  nature?  Does  he  think  so?  Why  or  why  not? 


PART  II. 

The  Teacher,  His  Character  and  Training 

The  Who  of  Teaching 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  TEACHER'S   WORK. 

SUGGESTED    READINGS. 

•The  Sunday  School  Tbacheu.  Hodges. 

•The  Training  of  the  Twhj.  DraichrUlnv.  Chap.   VIII. 

•The  Teacheu  that  Teaiiie.s.  Wells.  Chaps.  I.  and  III. 

•I'l-  TiiuoroH  Chu.diiood.  Huhhell.  pp.  77-108. 

Some   Silent  Teachers.  JlarrUton. 

'1"he   I'i.ace  and  Fcn'TIOn  im-  Tiir,  SI•NI>A^    Sciioni,.   Pant. 

•The  Teacheu  and  the  Child.  Mark.  pp.  134-154. 

The  Tiieouy  and  Puacticb  of  Teaching.  Thrinti.  Chap.  X. 

*Tea<hing  and  Teacheus.   Trumhnll.  pp.  352-377. 

•T'NcoN.sciots   TciTiON.   Hunt i)i</ton. 

Chakacteh  Krii.DiNc;.  Cuhr.  rroface  to  p.  34. 

Talk.s  With  Teachers.  Mayo.  pp.  19-21. 

The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching.  Pa<ie.   pp.  36-65. 

Fot'NDATioN   Principles  of  Education.  Moore,  pp.   18-24. 

The   Makincj  of  Character.  MacCoun.  Chaps.   III. -IX. 

PiBLE  Classes.   See.  p.   16 — 

Church.man\s   Manual.   Butler,   p.   204 — 

The  Teacher  and  the  Child. 

In  all  Education  there  are  three  factors  to  he  considered: 
(1)  the  Teacher,  (2)  the  Child,  (3)  the  Material.  We  need  to 
examine  each  of  these  very  carefully.  The  study  of  the  Teacher 
belongs  generally  with  the  princi})les  of  teaching,  the  so-called 
])edagogy  or  educational  psychology.  The  study  of  the  Child 
takes  up  the  elements  of  Child-Study  and  the  working  applica- 
tion of  Child-Psychology,  sometimes  called  Genetic  Psychology. 

The  Teacher. 

The  best  definition  of  the  function  of  the  Teacher  has  been 
given  by  Thring:  "A  Teacher  is  one  who  has  Liberty  enough, 
and  Time  enough,  and  Heart  enougli,  and  Head  enough  to  be  a 
blaster  in  the  Kingdom  of  Life."  "A  Master  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Life" — think  of  it  I  The  most  important  work  in  the  entire 
Church  to-day  is  the  work  of  the  Sunday  School  Teacher.    If 


18  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

one  had  to  take  a  choice  (thank  God,  we  do  not!)  between 
closing  the  doors  of  the  Church  for  a  season  or  closing  the  doors 
of  the  Sunday  School,  we  would  judge  the  Sunday  »School  of 
greater  importance.  It  was  a  Eoman  yjrelate  who  once  said : 
"Give  me  the  child  and  you  can  have  the  man."  Someone  has 
remarked  that  we  of  the  clergy  stand  in  the  pulpit.  We  have 
before  us  in  tlie  congregation  an  assembly  of  bottles.  Some  of 
these  bottles  are  corked,  and  some  are  imcorked ;  some  lia\e  wide 
necks  and  some  have  narrow  ones.  We  stand  and  sj)riiikle  over 
them  a  sponge  filled  with  hyssop  and  water.  The  corked  bottles 
are  those  who  are  either  deaf  mentally  or  physically — they  re- 
ceive nothing.  The  narrow-necked,  uncorked  bottles  drink  in 
a  few  drops  here  and  tliere,  but  only  a  few.  They  are  either 
inattentive  or  too  young  or  too  indifferent  or  the  preacher  talks 
over  their  heads.  The  wide-necked,  uncorked  Iwttles  are  eager 
to  drink  in  all  that  they  can,  ))ut  even  they  miss  much.  Xone  of 
the  bottles  are  filled.  A  great  many  drops  fall  between  the 
bottles  and  are  wasted.  The  Teacher  is  tlie  one  who  takes  each 
bottle  individually  and  ])hices  it  under  the  faucet  and  turns  tlie 
water  on  and  fills  the  bottle.  In  tlie  Mission  Field  to-day  and 
in  the  Church  at  home,  it  is  the  individual  Teacher  who  counts 
for  the  most. 

Liberty  Enough. — There  is  the  freedom  to  teach  wluit  one 
believes.  The  Sunday  School  is  no  place  for  teachers  who  have 
not  settled  their  own  doubts.  It  is  no  place  for  destructive 
criticism.  It  is  the  place  for  constructive  criticism.  It  is  the 
place  for  sound  doctrine  in  the  foundations  of  belief.  "The 
prophet  should  give  no  uncertain  sound,"  and  so  the  Sunday 
School  Teacher  must  be  one  of  positive  conviction,  and  those 
points  of  scholarship  that  are  proved  and  on  which  educators 
universally  agree  have  their  place  in  tlie  Sunday  School  only  in 
positive  teaching.  There  is  plenty  that  is  sure  and  settled  in  the 
Faith  to  build  up  character,  ^\'e  have  no  need  to  draw  on  plati- 
tudes of  scholarship  or  tread  uncertain  ground. 

Time  Enough. — There  is  the  opportunity  for  sufficient  and 
proper  study  and  preparation ;  for  the  personal  acquaintance 
with  the  children  by  frequent  calling  upon  them  in  their  homes; 
for  at  least  three  hours  a  week  of  solid  study.  Three  things 
every  Teacher  who  is  worthy  of  her  calling  should  undertake: 


'I' UK   TKACHKKS   WORK  19 

'I'lirci'  lioiir.'-  a  week  fur  study;  two  Imurs  a  week  for  calliii;^,  and 
ouo  hour  a  week  for  tlic  'rcaclit'r-'l'rainiiii^  Class.  Work  that  is 
worth  doiii>]:  for  (Jod  at  all  is  worth  doiiif;^  well.  As  Drawbridge 
says:  "In  those  Sunday  Sciiools  where  little  or  nothing  is  ex- 
pected of  the  teachers,  they  get  bored  and  soon  leave.  And  their 
classes  have  usually  anticipated  their  departure.  Where  the 
ideal  is  a  high  one,  and  the  leader  of  the  school  is  an  enthusiast, 
the  teachers  discover  that  teaching  is  very  interesting.  Their 
l)U})ils  simultaneously  begin  to  appreciate  Sunday  Sciiool.  It 
is  a  very  great  mistake  to  have  a  low  ideal  for  those  wliom  one 
would  influence,  on  the  ground  that  it  is  easy  to  expect  too  much 
from  them.  The  fact  is  that  peo])le  always  endeavor  to  rise  to 
one's  estimate  of  them,  and  they  respond  to  a  high  ideal  much 
more  readily  than  to  a  low  one.  There  is  much  more  heroism 
and  self-sacrifice  in  human  nature  than  pessimists  suppose. 
That  is  a  mean  and  foolish  proverb  which  says,  'Blessed  is  he 
that  expecteth  nothing,  for  he  will  not  be  disapj)ointed.'  Those 
who  expect  most  of  their  fellows  are  the  ones  least  disappointed 
in  them. 

"At  the  same  time  some  teachers  will  undoubtedly  leave  the 
school  rather  than  entertain  a  noble  ideal  of  their  work.  What 
then?  Others  will  come  forward  to  take  their  places,  just  be- 
cause the  work  is  no  child's  play;  and  those  who  previously  were 
indifferent  teachers  will  rapidly  become  worth  twice  as  much 
as  they  were  before.  Therefore  at  the  worst  they  could  teach 
the  few  remaining  pupils  of  the  classes  left  vacant  by  the  de- 
serters, as  well  as  their  own  classes. 

"Sunday  School  Teachers  resemble  hens'  eggs  in  one  re.'jpect, 
viz.,  that  one  good  one  is  worth  any  number  of  bad  ones.  The 
good  teacher  can  successfully  teach  a  whole  room  full  of  chil- 
dren— especially  if  assisted  by  one  or  two  members  of  the 
Teachers'  Training  Class.  The  latter  can  keep  order,  mark  the 
books,  etc.  The  value  of  all  religious  work  is  to  be  measured, 
not  by  its  quantity,  but  by  its  ([uality.  It  is  the  latter  rather 
than  the  former  which  is  deficient  in  our  Sunday  Sc-hools.  Then, 
again,  the  quantity  cannot  very  well  be  greatly  increased,  but  the 
quality  can  be  indefinitely  improved.  ^loreover,  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible, and  even  common,  for  a  score  of  Sunday  School  teachers 
to  teach  practically  nothing  in  a  twelvemonth;  but  it  is  impos- 


20  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

sible  for  one  good  teaclior  to  do  otherwise  than  teach  a  great 
deal  in  one  hour.  It  is  not  the  volume  of  sound,  but  the  amount 
of  learning,  wliieli  makes  the  difference.  Then,  again,  one 
teaclier  who  is  very  much  in  earnest  is  worth  vastly  more,  as  an 
inspiring  agent,  than  a  couple  of  score  who  are  nothing  of  the 
kind.  One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  Sunday  School  work  is 
getting  rid  of  those  teachers  whose  presence  is  worse  than  use- 
less, '^rhe  latter  not  only  do  no  good  in  their  own  class,  but  (by 
the  uproar  they  allow)  interfere  with  the  work  of  half  a  dozen 
neighboring  classes.  By  all  means  let  the  loafers  desert,  be- 
cause there  is  no  room  in  a  well-ordered  Sunday  School  for  any 
but  workers.  In  an  article  on  The  Discouraged  Teacher,  I 
came  across  the  following  advice:  'If  the  discouraged  teacher 
does  not  attend  the  teachers'  meeting,  discourage  him  a  little 
more.'  All  teachers  cannot  l)e  either  great  theologians,  or 
skilled  educationalists,  but  all  can  be  very  much  in  earnest." 

Heart  Enough. — There  is  tlie  personal  element  of  sympathy 
and  love  without  which  no  Teaclier  can  be  a  success.  It  is  "the 
smile  that  won't  come  off."  It  is  the  quality  that  Dean  Hodges 
calls  Cheerfulness.  In  his  little  l)rochure  on  the  Sunday  Scliool 
Teacher,  he  says:  "The  good  teacher  has  a  bright  face.  All 
good  Christians  are  good-looking.  The  teacher,  wlio  re])resents 
the  Christian  religion,  ought  of  all  ])eople  to  have  a  cheerful 
countenance.  That  is  a  vital  part  of  liis  instruction.  S.  Paul 
showed  his  profound  knowledge  of  human  nature  wlien  he  en- 
joined those  wlio  show  mercy  to  do  it  with  cheerrulness.  He 
knew  very  well  how  the  long  face,  the  sombre  manner,  the  arti- 
ficial pathos  and  piety  of  some  benevolent  ])ersons  spoil  their 
gifts.  There  is  a  look  in  the  faces  of  some  of  the  peo])le  wlio 
are  seen  in  electric  cars  carrying  limp-covered  Bibles  under  their 
arms  which  is  of  itself  an  argument  against  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. The  natural  man,  beholding  sucli  disciples,  says  within 
himself,  'From  this  religion,  good  Lord,  deliver  us.'  It  is  true 
that  the  warning,  'Be  not  righteous  overmuch,"  is  written  in  the 
book  of  Ecclesiastes,  which  is  not  the  best  book  in  the  Bible. 
If  we  take  righteousness  to  mean  simple,  interior  goodness,  it  is 
not  possible  to  be  righteous  overmuch.  Noliody  can  be  too  good. 
It  is  quite  possible,  however,  to  be  rigliteous  overmuch  in  the 
matter  of  expression.    There  is  an  oppressive  goodness  which 


THE   TKACIIKKS   WORK  21 

defeats  its  own  purposes.  It  is  liighly  ilesirahle,  in  order  to  give 
effective  instruetioii,  tliat  the  Sunday  School  Teacher  be  a  hu- 
man l)ein<i:,  and  the  chihlren  ouglit  to  he  infoi-nicd  of  that  en- 
couraging tact  by  tile  teacher's  heliavior. 

"The  lasting  h'sson  is  taught  by  the  persoiuility  of  tlie 
teachci'.  The  words  are  forgotten,  hTit  the  face  is  remembered, 
and  the  teaelier's  face  and  mannci-  proclaim  the  results  of  re- 
ligion. What  will  religion  do  for  us?  What  sort  of  persons 
will  it  make  of  us?  These  cpiestions,  unexpressed,  are  in  the 
hearts  of  tiie  scholars.  If  they  see  that  religion  makes  the 
teacher  pessimistic,  nervous,  narrow-minded,  cross,  and  com- 
])laining,  tiiey  will  be  prejudiced  against  it.  You  may  teach  the 
creed  of  Christian  satisfaction,  you  may  sing  the  songs  of  ever- 
lasting salvation,  but  all  will  be  of  none  effect  unless  you,  your- 
self, are  honestly  happy,  hopeful,  merry,  and  joyful.  The 
preacher  in  the  puljjit  is  ini])eded  by  a  general  disai)probation 
of  humor.  There  is  no  such  impediment  in  the  Sunday  School. 
The  lesson  begins  well  when  the  teacher  and  the  scholars  laugh 
together." 

Head  Enougli. — There  is  the  wide  collateral  study  which 
goes  beyond  the  paltry  preparation  of  the  individual  lesson  and 
reaches  out  to  the  widest  and  broadest  phases  of  a  ripened  Edu- 
cation. One  cannot  know  too  much  about  any  subject,  and 
there  is  })rol)al)ly  no  line  of  Education  where  teachers  seem  so 
afraid  to  know  any  more  than  they  will  need  to  teach  in  a  par- 
ticular lesson  hour,  as  in  the  Sunday  School.  If  one  is  teacli- 
ing  the  life  of  our  Blessed  Lord,  it  is  not  enough  to  read  the 
meagre  Teachers'  Notes,  which,  at  the  best,  only  serve  as  crutches 
for  lame  teachers;  one  should  read  each  week  two  or  more  of  the 
many  excellent  lives  of  Christ.  .No  two  men  have  ever  viewed 
the  Master  from  the  same  view-point.  No  two  have  ever  written 
duplicate  biographies.  Each  one  tells  something  new.  Just  as 
the  same  landscape  looks  different  from  varying  mountains,  so 
the  lesson  topic  should  be  viewed  from  many  standpoints. 
Therefore,  read  Stalker,  and  Farrar,  and  Geikie,  and  Eder- 
sheim,  and  Andrews,  and  Dawson.  Dip  into  each  of  them. 
Read  between  times.  Use  odd  moments.  Cultivate  the  hunger- 
ing and  thirsting  after  knowledge,  once  get  the  Vision  and  the 
Study  becomes  absorbing.  There  is  time  for  it — plenty  of  time 


22  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

in  everyone's  life,  time  snatched  from  the  wasted  moments,  from 
the  light  gossip,  from  the  bridge-whist,  from  the  idle  novel, 
from  the  too  much  sleep,  and  God's  work  is  worthy  of  it  all. 

Other  Essential  Qualifications. 

Edrneslne.'is  and  Consecration. — This  means  a  deep  and 
real  devotion  to  the  spiritual  ideals  and  princi])les  of  the  Min- 
istry of  Teaching,  such  as  should  be  the  vital  and  basal  power 
of  a  Master  in  the  Kingdom  of  T^ife.  Tt  betokens  devotion  to 
(lod,  to  our  fellows  in  the  persons  of  the  children  whom  we 
teach,  and  to  our  work  and  its  duties. 

Amos  Wells  puts  it  strongly  in  his  little  book,  The  Teacher 
That  Teaches:  "For  the  prime  essential  of  Sunday  School 
teaching  that  really  teaches  is — I  say  it  with  intense  convic- 
tion— a  vital  Christian  experience.  Do  you  know,  in  every  fiber 
of  your  being,  tiie  love  of  Christ?  Does  it  pervade  your  soul, 
thrilling  you,  intensifying  you,  empowering  you,  as  the  electric 
current  fills  the  wire  with  pulsing  energy?  Is  there  no  hidden, 
eating  sin  or  love  of  sin,  which,  like  an  electrolysis,  allows  this 
power  to  escape?  Are  you,  in  this  glad,  eager  love  of  Christ, 
given  up — entirely  given  up — to  do  Uis  will?  Is  there  to  you, 
in  all  tiie  world  of  pleasure  and  purpose,  no  ambition  more 
appealing,  no  pleasure  more  entrancing,  than  to  win  some  other 
soul  to  do  His  will?  Has  tliis  love  of  Christ  and  His  will  led 
you  into  a  deep  and  tender  love  of  Christ's  children,  for  whom 
He  died  and  for  whom  He  lives  and  longs?  Do  you  exist 
for  one  thing — all  else  being  secondary — just  to  bring  these  two 
together  and  join  them  forever,  Christ  and  His  children?"' 

Personalily. — Such  is  what  Bishop  Huntington  emphasizes 
in  his  trenchant  booklet  on  Unconscious  Tuition,  which  should 
be  thoroughly  studied  by  every  Teacher  who  hopes  to  do  heli)ful 
work.  It  is  not  what  we  say  and  teach;  but  what  we  are,  that 
counts  in  the  long  run  with  t-bildren.  Few  teachers  a})preciate 
tiieir  own  Nervous  Temperament  wliich  telegra})hs  our  inward 
mental  changes  to  the  outward  world.  The  ])lay  of  the  Face, 
tlie  tone  of  tlie  Voice,  the  Manners  and  Mannerisms,  the  Eti- 
quette, tiie  Dress,  the  Personal  Habits  are  indications  to  the 
pupils  of  what  we  are  and  think.  We  may  smile  ever  so  sweetly; 


THE  TEACHERS   WORK  23 

l)ut  the  frown  on  the  forehead  and  the  nervous,  hurried  motions 
show  our  rulfled  and  unpeaceful  mind. 

Punctuality. — Both  Bishop  Paret  and  Dean  Hodges  empha- 
size this  point.  The  former  .states:  "I  will  name  one  more 
qualification  for  a  helpful  Sunday  School  teacher.  It  is  unfail- 
ing, punctual  regularity.  No  other  excellencies  will  make  up 
for  lack  of  this.  If  I  were  heard  now  by  some  who  may  be 
disposed  to  become  teachers,  I  would  say  something  like  this : 
'If  duties  at  liome  or  circums-taiices  which  you  cannot  control 
make  your  punctual  regularity  impossible,  consider  it  a  provi- 
dential indication  that  you  are  to  work  for  Christ  not  as  a 
Sunday  School  teacher,  but  in  some  other  way.'  This  will  be 
one  (but  not  the  only  one)  of  the  real  tests  and  proofs  of  your 
earnestness.  The  teacher  should  be  not  the  last,  but  the  first, 
to  arrive,  ready  to  receive  the  pupils,  showing  that  they  are 
expected,  and  that  some  one  is  watching  for  them.  The  class 
that  has  to  wait  often  for  a  teacher,  needs  a  new  teaclier.  And  I 
mean  not  only  punctuality  of  hours,  but  regularity  of  continuous 
Sundays."  The  latter  says:  "The  good  teacher  will  be  un- 
failingly present  and  unfailingly  prompt.  One  of  the  principal 
reasons  for  the  nervous  prostration  of  the  clergy  is  the  irregu- 
larity of  Sunday  School  teachers.  For  unpunctuality  includes  a 
multitude  of  sins.  The  unpunctual  teacher  is  lacking  in  the 
ability  of  discipline.  He  is  deficient  in  that  sense  of  order 
which  is  at  the  lieart  of  discipline.  Even  if  he  is  able  to  con- 
trol a  class,  lie  hampers  himself  by  an  initial  disadvantage.  He 
permits  the  class  to  make  the  first  move.  When  he  arrives  upon 
the  scene,  the  scholars  have  already  opened  the  hour's  proceed- 
ings. In  most  cases,  youthful  human  nature  being  what  it  is, 
they  have  established  a  situation  of  cheerful  disorder.  They 
have  begun  in  a  spirit  which  is  defiant  both  of  the  service  and 
of  the  lesson.  The  tardy  teacher  must  regain  a  rocky  mile  of 
lost  ground,  and  this  he  rarely  succeeds  in  doing.  The  mental 
and  moral  defects  whicli  make  him  habitually  late  prevent  him 
from  taking  the  command.  The  wise  teacher  precedes  his 
pupils.  Wlien  they  get  to  their  seats  they  find  him  there  al- 
ready, prepared  to  receive  them  one  by  one,  into  an  association 
of  peace.    The  unpunctual  teacher  is  commonly  deficient  not 


24  KELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

only  iu  the  ability  of  discipline  but  in  the  sense  of  duty.  He 
is  not  obedient  to  the  commands  of  conscience.  He  is  not 
attentive  to  tlie  inner  voice.  He  will  cheerfully  take  a  class  if 
he  is  asked  to  do  so,  but  he  does  not  understand  that  this  act 
imposes  upon  him  any  serious  responsibility.  He  accepts,  as 
if  it  were  an  invitation  to  an  afternoon  tea,  and  if  the  weather 
is  propitious  and  he  has  nothing  else  to  do  he  goes." 

Alertness  is  but  Mental  Readiness  due  to  a  fund  of  Knowl- 
edge and  Related  Knowledge,  bearing  upon  the  subject  taught. 
Knowledge  is  acquired,  thought  over,  compared  with  previous 
knowledge,  made  a  part  of  one's  self,  and  so  forms  a  stock  of 
digested  learning,  readily  and  ([uickly  drawn  upon  when  needed 
for  teaching.  Practice  in  speaking  rapidly  and  in  giving  quick 
answers  to  questions  will  aid  in  the  development  of  this  alertness. 

Personal  Magnetism.  This  is  part  of  our  Unconscious 
Tuition,  or  Personality,  caused  by  posture,  voice,  dress,  manner, 
clearness  of  eye,  assuredness,  etiquette,  self-confidence,  self- 
control,  winsomeness,  etc. 

Insight.  This  is  really  sympathy,  mental  diagonsis,  quick 
observation  and  Aveighing  of  certain  signs  that  indicate  cliarac- 
ter  in  tlie  Child  observed;  watching  his  modes,  expressions,  atti- 
tude, and  other,  often  obscure,  signs.  People  brought  up  in 
large  families,  in  active  and  varied  surroundings,  have  this 
power  naturally.  Tlie  only  rules  are  therefore  (a)  being  with 
children,  (h)  making  sympathy  a  purpose  in  life,  (c)  trial  and 
error,  or  guessing  and  learning  by  mistakes. 

Common  Sense.  In  spite  of  popular  opinion,  Dr.  Thorndike 
analyzes  this  into  simple  elements.  It  is  not  a  quality  per  se, 
as  most  persons  suppose.  Analyzed,  it  appears  as  (a)  absence 
of  queer,  bizarre  Ideas.  Any  eccentricity  or  habit  out  of  the 
usual  order  in  a  teacher  is  noted  and  set  down  to  a  lack  of 
Common  Sense;  (h)  absence  of  Sentimentality;  (c)  absence  of 
a  doctrinaire  Temper  or  Assertiveness,  which  is  so  often  a  habit 
in  the  teaching  profession.  It  starts  with  a  good  idea,  and  in- 
jures its  own  cause  by  pushing  it  too  far,  to  the  exclusion  or  un- 
fair balancing  of  other  equally  good  ideas;  (d)  presence  of  a 
Sense  of  Humor,  that  works  more  for  unruHled  temper  than  any 
other  one  point.  It  turns  discomforts  aside,  and  cheers  the  dull, 
routine  work,  so  full  of  disappointments  and  mistakes;    (e) 


THE   TEACHERS   WORK  25 

presence  of  Self-Criticism,  which  sizes  one's  self  up,  and,  by 
comparison  with  the  usual  run  of  people,  eliminates  pecularities 
of  habit;  (/)  presence  of  the  Glolden  ]\rean.  The  "Golden 
Mean''  cannot  be  justified  logically  or  morally;  yet  all  are 
agreed  that  it  is  the  wisest  course  in  everything.  Even  excel- 
lencies may  be  overdone.  Keep  a  little  beliind  the  leaders  and  a 
little  ahead  of  the  mediocrity,  wliit-h  will  make  us  better  pro- 
portioned, since  the  majority  of  mankind  are  mediocre. 

Ever  realize  that  intercourse  with  men  in  a  wide  sphere  of 
life  and  society  will  give  more  Common  Sense  than  anything 
else,  that  we  should  abandon  hobbies  and  pet  notions,  by  which 
we  differ  from  the  generality  of  men.  Think  and  act  for  the 
most  part  as  the  rest  of  your  fellows  do.  Avoid  fussiness, 
nervousness,  and  worry.  Economize  life-work  and  energy. 
Adopt  the  policy  of  doing  the  best  you  can  (only  be  sure  it  is 
the  best,  and  not  a  piece  of  "Shirk-work")  and  leave  the  results 
to  God.  Try  to  escape  narrowness,  the  pet  vice  of  all  teachers. 
This  is  the  result  of  semi-pedantry  and  semi-timidity,  that  shies 
at  meeting  new  things,  new  problems,  new  persons.  Humanize 
yourself  at  every  step,  gaining  the  widest  possible  amount  of 
efficiency  and  experience  along  the  most  varied  lines. 

The  Primary  Peril. 

Wells  rightly  states  that  in  all  spiritual  work  the  primary 
peril  is  pride.  The  teacher  in  a  Sunday  School  enjoys  a  superb 
chance  to  show  off.  He  is  not  obliged,  like  the  secular  school 
teacher,  to  bear  the  brunt  of  a  six-hours'  daily  struggle  with 
stupidity,  obstinacy,  and  heedlessness.  He  need  only  be  wise 
and  shrewd,  tactful  and  fascinating,  for  half  an  hour  a  week. 
If  he  succeeds  in  that,  he  has  won  liis  scholars'  hearts  and  the 
delighted  praise  of  their  parents. 

How  a  Proper  System  Will   Help  Teachers. 

Here  are  a  few  suggestions  given  by  Mr.  Gilbert :  "How 
can  the  system  make  a  poor  corps  of  teachers  good  or  a  good 
corps  better,  keep  the  teachers  up  to  the  highest  standards  pos- 
sible, and  secure  from  them  their  very  l)est  work? 

"First,  by  making  them  feel  that  they  are  persons  of  conse- 
quence whose  judgments  are  worth  considering  and  who  may 


26  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

justly  be  supposed  to  possess  reasonably  tender  consciences,  some 
professional  ambition,  and  at  least  a  fair  degree  of  devotion  to 
their  work.  The  first  duty  of  school  superintendents  and  other 
otlicials  is  to  lead  the  teachers  to  respect  themselves,  to  feel  that 
they  are  trusted,  and  in  return  to  secure  their  confidence.  This 
done,  it  is  possible  to  put  into  effect  definite  plans  for  helping 
teachers,  and  developing  their  freedom. 

"A  course  of  study,  then,  should  be  broad  in  its  outlines  and 
suggestive  rather  than  mandatory  as  to  details  and  methods. 
It  should  require  results,  but  these  results  should  be  stated  in 
large  rather  than  in  small  terms.  They  should  be  results  of 
growth,  manifested  in  power  to  do  new  things,  rather  than 
ability  to  answer  a  few  stereotyped  questions. 

"Furtlier,  a  course  of  study  should  stimulate  teacliers  to  self- 
improvement.  One  of  the  claims  made  against  the  teachers  as 
a  body,  especially  in  discussions  of  that  utterly  futile  question, 
'Is  teaching  a  profession?'  is  that  they  are  not  scholarly.  After 
much  observation  I  am  convinced  that  the  defect,  in  so  far  as 
it  exists,  is  due  chiefly  to  the  lack  of  impulse  towards  self- 
improvement  in  most  of  our  formal  school  systems.  A  teacher 
going  over  the  work  of  the  grade  soon  acquires  mastery  of  the 
few  insignificant  facts  that  must  be  imparted  to  the  cliildreii, 
and  is  able  each  year  to  do  the  required  work  with  less  efi'ort. 
Very  few  of  us  keep  up  a  high  degree  of  intellectual  activity 
without  some  stimulus  outside  ourselves,  so  that  teachers,  find- 
ing it  possible  to  do  tlieir  work,  keep  a  respectable  position 
among  their  associates,  hold  their  ])la('es,  draw  their  pay,  and 
often  settle  into  a  condition  of  intellectual  coma. 

"A  course  should  not  be  so  superficial  that  it  can  be  under- 
stood without  study.  It  is  good  to  make  it  necessary  for  teach- 
ers to  study  the  curriculum  and  tlien  to  study  educational  prin- 
ciples in  order  to  understand  it.  This  is  in  itself  broadening 
and  strengthening  and  opens  up  to  tlie  teachers  especially  tlie 
more  thoughtful  and  the  brighter,  wide  fields  of  inquiry  and 
fine  stimuli  for  growth." 
Some   Silent  Teachers. 

In  tlie  wonderfully  attractive  little  book  l)y  the  above  title, 
Miss  Harrison,  the  great   Chicago   kindergarten   teaclier,  calls 


THE   TKACHEKS   WORK  27 

our  aUontioii  to  tlio  potent  influences  of  certain  silent  teachers, 
such  as  stone,  wood,  architecture,  toys,  the  shop  window,  and 
colors,  lender  the  last  we  should  note  tlie  influence  of  colors 
both  in  the  clioice  of  pictures  and  in  the  trimmings  of  the 
Sunday  School  rooms. 

Violet,  the  color  of  sadness  and  grief,  is  the  most  deju'essing 
of  all  colors  and  produces  mental  depression  and  stagnation  in 
persons  exposed  exclusively  to  its  influence.  It  is  said  by  F.illian 
Bentley  that  it  is  the  practice  of  Kussia  to  confine  men  of  unusu- 
ally brilliant  mental  attainments,  who  are  o])posed  to  the  govern- 
ment, in  rooms  from  which  all  rays  of  light  the  vibrations  of 
which  are  slower  than  those  of  blue  and  violet  are  excluded. 
Jn  every  case  the  mental  perceptions  of  the  man  placed  in  them 
are  so  dulled  that  he  is  unable  to  cope  with  the  simplest  task 
of  life. 

Tied  has  the  most  exciting  effect  upon  the  nervous  system. 
It  is  tlie  most  powerful  of  all  colors.  There  are  instances  where 
those  who  have  lived  in  red-papered  and  furnished  rooms  have 
become  cases  for  the  neurologist.  Photographers  find  that  the 
use  of  red  in  their  dark  rooms  has  caused  the  nerves  of  the 
workers  to  become  restless  and  irritated.  The  effect  of  red 
upon  the  female  sex  is  particularly  noticeable  and  injurious,  so 
that  those  who  wear  red  dresses  and  even  a  red  veil  are  apt  to 
become  cross  and  irritable  and  high-strung.  Dressmakers  can- 
not allow  any  one  girl  to  work  on  red  for  a  great  length  of  time. 
Nausea  is  often  caused  by  red.  A  red  carpet  in  the  Sunday 
School  room  or  red  paper  on  the  walls  has  been  known  time 
and  again  to  produce  a  nervous  and  irritating  efTect  upon  the 
class,  as  well  as  eye-strain  and  mental  fatigue. 

Green  is  softening,  so  that  green  carpets  in  Church  and 
Suiulay  School  are  to  be  preferred  to  red.  Eed  is  undoubtedly 
a  beautiful  and  warm  color,  but  a  little  of  it  goes  a  long  way. 
(ireens  and  olives,  browns,  and  tans  and  yellows  have  a  more 
natural  and  satisfying  effect,  neither  over-stimulating  on  the 
one  hand,  nor  depressing  on  the  other. 

Colors  show  character  and  Miss  Harrison  delightfully  de- 
scribes the  millinery  windows :  "They  begin  with  the  display 
of  soft  roses,  made  softer  still  by  veils  of  lace  or  illusion  ;  warm 
rich  velvet  hats,  trimmed  with  furs,  flowers  and  burnished  gold. 


28  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

veritable  poems  of  color;  little  by  little  the  daintiness  and  the 
richness  disappear,  and  plain  matter-of-fact  combinations  in 
good  substantial  colors  take  their  jdace;  farther  along  harsh 
tones  of  red  and  purple  and  green  begin  to  announce  the  coming 
discords;  when  we  reach  the  unfortunate  districts  where  saloons 
are  allowed  to  place  their  temptations  every  third  or  fourth 
door,  we  see  the  misery,  the  squalor,  and  the  human  degradation 
shown  by  the  glaring,  flaunting,  self-assertive  colors  displayed 
in  the  millinery  windows,  colors  which  fairly  swear  at  and  figlit 
with  each  other,  the  shopkeepers  knowing,  with  a  knowledge 
born  of  experience,  what  color  will  a])peal  to  the  inner  condition 
of  his  purchaser." 

Teachers'    Meetings. 

Dr.  Butler  treats  the  subjects  thus :  "Some  think  that  teach- 
ers' meetings  are  desirable;  others,  that  they  would  l)e  nice  if 
they  could  be  had.  They  are  not  to  be  classed  as  desirable,  and 
they  ought  not  to  l)e  nice.  They  are  a  necessity.  If  one  is 
satis'fied  with  the  do-as-you-please  Sunday  crowd,  there  is  no 
need  of  a  teachers'  meeting.  But  if  there  is  to  be  a  school,  there 
must  be  a  unity,  unity  in  organization,  in  discipline  and  in- 
struction, unity  of  aim,  and  unity  of  doctrinal  teaching.  There 
cannot  be  real  unity  unless  officers  and  teachers  meet  as  one 
body.  We  may  write  out  an  elaborate  organization,  but  it  re- 
mains a  paper  unity  unless  the  workers  meet  and  plan  for  unity 
of  work.  Without  a  regular  teachers'  meeting,  each  class  re- 
mains a  separate  little  circle,  doing  what  is  pleases,  with  small 
interest  in  anything  outside  of  itself.  In  a  real  School,  the 
Superintendent  knows  his  teachers,  their  ability,  their  methods 
of  work,  their  discipline,  and  the  quality  of  their  instruction. 
He  also  knows  how  to  help  them  correct  their  mistakes,  and  to 
train  them  to  avoid  mistakes.  The  teacliers  know  each  other's 
difficulties,  and  each  other's  metliods',  hindrances,  and  suc- 
cesses. Mutual  interest  quickens  interest ;  hope  arouses  hope ; 
zeal  fires  zeal,  and  tlie  real  School  l)ecomes  a  real  success. 

"The  Teacher  Training  is  not  preparing  for  a  lesson,  but  for 
life-long  usefulness.  There  is  nothing  new  about  it.  The 
Christian  Church  from  the  beginning  has  been  bulit  up  by  in- 
struction.  The   Church   was  oruranized   for   teaching  and   wor- 


Tin:   TEACHERS    WORK  20 

ship.  Us  teaching",  like  its  worship,  was  done  hy  men  trained 
and  set  apart  for  tliat  purpose.  Pulpit  discourses  came  in  later 
and  marked  a  distinct  loss  in  tlic  rcli.ijfious  instruction  of  chil- 
dren and  in  spiritual  ji:ro\vth  of  tlic  Church.  It  is  ours  to  work 
for  the  restoration  of  tlie  teaching  power  which  ihe  Church  lost 
hy  ceasing  to  train  her  teachers,  and  to  make  full  use  of  their 
ministry. 

"Even  in  smaller  Schools  the  Senior  Bible  class  can,  and 
should,  provide  for  the  essentials  of  teacher-training.  Such 
classes  cannot  do  all  that  is  needed,  hut  they  can  lay  foundations 
on  which  an  earnest  teacher,  hy  reading,  study,  and  special  train- 
ing, can  build  uj)  a  good  superstructure.  The  fact  that  a  large 
numb(>r  of  our  teachers  are  so  i)oorly  prejiared  for  their  work 
does  not  reflect  upon  them,  but  upon  the  })arishes  that  have 
failed  to  provide  for  their  training.  A  parish  that  is  unwilling 
to  spend  anything  for  the  training  of  its  teachers  does  not  de- 
serve to  live.  Usually  it  does  not  live,  although  it  may  have  a 
starved,  half-dead  existence  for  several  years  before  it  becomes 
defunct." 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

tsr(i(;KSTKl)    BY    PROF.    HUBBELL.] 

1.  What   is  ;i   teacher's  workV 

2.  What  arc  the  chief  characteristics  of  a  jjood   teacher — (r/)    of 

iiiaiincr;    (/>)   of  education;    (c)   of  characterV 
:5.     What  is  meant  by  "personality"'  in  the  teacherV  IIow  may  this 
ho  cultivated V 

4.  What   do  you  consider  your  lireatest  daiif^er  in  teachin.;;?  AVhat 

your  chief  fault  V 

5.  How  does  the  profession  of  teaching;-  compare  with  that  of  physi- 

cian, lawyer,  artist,  carpenter,  or  nnisicianV 


PART  III. 

The  Child  and  Child  Study,  or  the  Process  of 
Mind  Growth 

The  Whom  of  Teaching 


CllArTKR  III. 
THE  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD. 

SUGGESTED   READINGS. 

*'l"iii:  CiiruciiJiAx'.s  Manual.     Butler,     pp.   1-1.5. 

'I'm:  Child  and  Keligion.     Stephens.     Chap.   1. 

So.Mi:  Silent  Teachers.     Harrison. 

♦Social  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World.     Jones. 

I'svciioLOGic  Fou.ndatidns  of  Education.     Harris.     Chap.   III. 

*l"i'  TiiuouGii  CuiLDiiooD.     IluhbeU.     Chap.   IV. 

The  Meaning  of  Education.     Butler,     pp.  3-20. 

The  Excursions  op  an  Evolutionist.     Fi-skc.     pp.   ,'!<)0-;no. 

The   Destinv  of  Man.     Fiske.     pp.   35-76. 

Sunday  School  Science.     Holmes,     pp.  17-20. 

Foundations  of  Education.     Moore,     pp.  33  40. 

*Teacher  Training.     Roads,     pp.   171S. 

*The  Mind  of  a  Child.     Richmond.     (;iiaps.  I.  and  II. 

The  Teacher,  the  Child,  and  the  Book.      Schatifflrr.     p.  141.  p.    l.'t.';. 

*riRST  Three  Years   of  Childhood.     Perez. 

ruINCII'LES    OF    IjELIGlorS    ElM  CATION.       p.    1()5. 

The   Discovery  of  the  Child. 

Dr.  Alloi'd  A.  JJutlcr  in  liis  ]\Ian-ual  of  Methods  ix  tiii-: 
Sunday  School  says:  "The  nineteenth  century  was  the  age  of 
research  in  all  departments  of  knowledge.  The  greatest  find  in 
the  educational  field  was  the  discovery  of  the  child  as  a  factor, 
the  essential  factor,  in  the  educational  prohlein.  It  was  dis- 
covered that  facts  arc  not  tauglit  for  their  own  .'^ake,  that  the 
tuat'lier's  training  is  not  for  himself,  that  the  juirpose  of  his 
]i]'c]taration  is  not  to  teach  a  lesson,  nor  to  instruct  a  class. 
When  we  remember  that  the  religious  training  of  the  chiM  de- 
cides the  strength  or  weakness  of  all  his  after  life:  ihnl  a  chihrs 
early  impressions  are  those  which  no  later  experience  can  ever 
wholly  obliterate;  and  when  we  I'omember  that  it  is  the  child's 
moral  and  spiritual  training  A\hich  decides  his  own  character, 
his  iniinence  upon  the  characters  of  his  companions,  and  that 
character  here  means  destiny  hereafter."  we  can  seo  llic  im- 
portance of  early  religious  instruction. 


:i4  RELIGIOUS  EDlTATrOX 

The  work  of  the  educational  rororiuers,  Pestalozzi,  Froebel, 
Herbart,  and  Horace  Mann^  opened  a  new  vista  in  tlie  educa- 
tional domain. 

The  Study  of  the  Child. 

In  tlie  life  of  every  plant,  of  every  lowe-r  animal,  and  of  man 
there  are  two  things  which  go  to  make  up  his  Character:  (1) 
The  individual  himself,  that  is  his  hereditary  constitution  and 
tendencies;  and  (2)  His  environment  or  surroundings,  of  which 
Education  is  one,  the  others  being  the  licune,  society,  business. 
and  all  other  influences  in  the  woi-Jd  around  him,  such  as  cli- 
mate, health,  etc. 
Heredity  versus  Environment. 

If,  ten  years  ago,  two  men  had  stood  side  by  side,  the  one  a 
physician,  representing  the  scientific  attitude,  the  other  the  so- 
cial worker,  representing  education,  and  if  you  had  asked  them 
the  same  question :  "Which  do  you  consider  of  the  more  im- 
portance, Heredity  or  Environment?''  you  would  have  received 
opposite  answers.  The  scientist  would  have  claimed  Heredity 
as  of  greater  potency;  the  sociologist  would  have  urged  the  in- 
fluence of  Enviroinnent.  To-day  they  would  probably  stand  side 
by  side  in  mental  as  well  as  in  physical  proximity,  agreeing  that, 
of  the  two,  Environment  counts  for  more. 

Some  people  think  that  Heredity  or  Xatural  Character  is 
more  important  than  the  Personal  Training  of  the  Child  and  his 
Environment.  How  is  the  Child  affected  by  Environment?  A 
stone  is  not  affected  unless  it  be  frangible  and  so  broken  to 
pieces.  But  a  Child  is  different  from  a  stone.  It  is  not  only 
affected  by  its  Environment,  but  it  reacts  upon  and  alters  its 
action  according  to  impressions  received  from  its  Environment. 
It  is  sensitive,  receptive,  responsive.  If  there  is  no  reaction 
there  is  no  Education.  TJ.  S.  Commissioner  Harris,  in  his 
Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education,  has  pointed  out  this 
fundamental  principle  of  Education,  and  calls  it  "self-activity" ; 
of  which  we  shall  speak  more  fully  further  on.  It  used  to  be 
considered  that  the  Child  absorbed  teaching.  Locke  spoke  of 
the  Child's  mind  as  though  it  were  a  blank  paper  upon  which 
we  would  write.  Others  pictured  it  as  the  "pouring  in"'  of  in- 
formation and  facts.     It  is  rather  the  "drawinu'  out"  if  we  con- 


THE  NATLRI-:   UF    J  UK   LlJIIJ)  .}.") 

trust  it  with  the  old  *"lnf()niiati()n."'  Bettor  still,  it  is  takiiij.^ 
hold  of  the  lloreditarv  iinpid.-rs  and  activities  with  wliich  the 
intense  Child  is  already  fairh-  biihhling  over,  and  turning,  and 
training,  and  educating  these  activities  in  the  riglit  direction. 
The  dilference  between  the  old  education  and  the  new  consists 
largely  in  the  fact  that  the  old  education  attempted  to  interest 
the  Child  in  those  things  that  he  would  use  thirty  years  hence; 
while  the  new  education  believes  that  his  interests  will  be  best 
met  by  exercising  his  mental  and  ])hysical  powers  upon  those 
things  which  meet  his  need  to-chiy. 

Elizabeth  Ilarrisoti  in  her  So.me  Silent  Teachers  writes: 
"But  over  and  above  the  too  exclusive  study  of  heredity,  which 
leads  to  fatalism,  down  below  the  exclusive  study  of  environment, 
which  leads  to  despondency,  shines  the  light  of  the  thought  that 
■>^('//'-activity  is  greater  than  any  barriers  placed  by  ancestry  or 
by  surroundings.     'Man  is  a  limit-lranscending  being/   is   ihe 

watchword  of  the  new  education "     It  lies   not    in 

our  start,  but  in  ourselves,  'Svlicthci-  we  shall  end  life  with  dia- 
dems upon  our  heads  or  fagots  in  nm-  hands.  Xo  one  who  has 
read  Booker  T.  Washington's  autobiogi'aphy  will  ever  say  again 
that  heredity  or  environment  stand  unconquerable  before  the 
self-activity  of  the  human  soul.  There  we  see  the  man  with  the 
hoe  slowly  transforming  himself  into  a  prince  among  men  by 
his  constant  determined  choosing  of  kingdom  and  stars  rather 
than  of  herbs  and  apples." 

Dr.  !^[cComb's  recent  article  on  Heredity  and  \\'ill  Power 
states:  ''The  fact  of  heredity  is  one  of  the  most  firmly  estab- 
lished conclusions  of  modern  science.  Says  lluxley:  'We  may 
stiV  that  the  moral  and  intellectual  essence  of  a  man  does  pass 
over  from  one  fleshly  tabernacle  to  another.  In  the  new-born 
infant  the  character  of  the  stock  lies  latent:  and  the  ego  is  a 
bundle  of  potentialities.'  Xow.  we  must  distinguish  between  the 
fact  and  the  theory  of  heredity.  Xo  one  doubts  the  fact,  but 
scientists  have  not  reached  any  agreement  as  to  theory.  The  fact 
may  be  expressed  thus :  There  is  a  biological  law  found  operating 
throughout  the  whole  organic  world  whereby  beings  tend  to  re- 
peat themselves  in  their  descendants,  or  whereby  an  individual 
receives  from  his  parents  his  chief  vital  forces  and  tendencies, 
his  physical  and  spiritual  capital. 


3G  ][i:j.lLilUU,S  EDUCATIUX 

"About  iliis  fafi  a  vast  amount  of  popular  misunderstandiug 
has  gathered.  ]\It'ii  and  Avomen  settle  down  in  fatalistic  fashion 
under  moral  and  ])hysical  weaknesses  on  ilic  jilea  that  these 
things  are  inherited  from  some  ancestor  who  was  a  hard  drinker 
and  ]-)crhaps  amused  himself  ])y  beating  his  wife!  In  reality, 
a  little  exercise  of  the  will,  a  strong  appeal  io  dormant  energies, 
would  suffice  to  shake  off  these  disabilities  and  restore  normal 
health.  Or  again,  people  argue,  'Tjike  father,  like  son';  if  the 
father  has  tuberculosis  his  child  will  fall  a  victim  to  the  same 
disease.  It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the  most  recent 
researches  disprove  this  notion.  What  the  father  transmits  to 
his  child  is  not  a  disease;  it  is  a  condition  of  nei'vous  instabilit}' 
which  may  ])i'('dispose  to,  but  (hu's  not  necessitate,  this  or  that 
disease.  h"or  example,  I  know  a  young  woman  whose  father  died 
fi'om  consumption,  yet  she  hei>elf  is  fi'ce  from  the  slightest 
tubercular  taint.  On  the  other  hand,  she  is  ])roMe  to  hypo- 
chondriacal depression  and  afllicts  herself  with  all  sorts  of 
inuiginary  ills,  ^^'hat  we  iidiei'it  may  be  described  as  instability 
of  the  nerve-tissue,  whereby  we  have  less  of  power  of  resistance 
against  the  various  stresses  and  troubles  of  life. 

'"Xow.  it  is  generally  admitted  that  one  of  the  main  factors 
in  producing  nervous  troubles  is  the  predisposition  with  which 
people  are  born.  One  individual  comes  into  the  world  with  a 
nervous  system  less  under  control  than  is  the  case  with  others. 
He  is  not  responsible  for  this  fact;  it  is  an  original  element  in 
his  particular  constitution.  For  example,  the  younger  Coleridge 
was  not  responsible  for  inheriting  from  his  fatlier  an  unstable 
nervous  system.  S.  T.  Coleridge  was  an  o]uum-eate]-.  and  in  all 
the  relations  of  life  his  will  was  hopelessly  uiulermined.  The 
son,  Hartley,  had  no  inclination  to  opium,  but  he  became  a  slave 
to  alcohol. 

"Yet  this  is  only  half  the  truth.  We  must  distinguish  be- 
tween a  predisposing  and  an  exciting  cause.  If  we. could  exam- 
ine the  brains  of  our  fellows,  we  would  be  astonished  to  discover 
how  many  potential  madmen  are  abroad.  Insanity  may  lurk  in 
the  blood,  but  it  needs  a  favorable  environment  ere  the  sleeping 
evil  is  aroused.  Predisposition  may  be  there,  but  before  disorder 
can  declare  itself,  other  causes  miist  be  at  work.  What  are  some 
of  these?     A\'orry  holds  the  first  ]ilace  in  the  hierarchy  of  mis- 


TJIJ-:  NATL  UK  OF  TllK  CHILD  'M 

cliiof.  'Xot  work,  but  worry  kills/  is  a  true  proverb.  Tiie  man 
wlio  works  M'itli  liis  brain  moderatel}'  has  the  best  safet-'nard 
against  nervous  trouble.  On  the  other  hand,  worr\'  is  sheer  and 
unmiti,!i'ated  evil.'' 

Heredity. 

Professor  lU'iiry  Jones  says  that  Heredity  can  be  explained 
only  on  the  theoi-y  of  the  germ-plasin;  and  Ihe  theory  of  the 
germ-plasm  implies,  in  the  last  resort,  not  only  that  life  is  con- 
tinuous, but  that  from  the  first  it  contains,  in  some  way,  the 
tendency  towards  the  variations  which  reveal  themselves  in  the 
successive  stages  of  animal  life.  Outward  environment  only 
elicits  or  restrains,  stimulates  or  represses,  what  is  already  ])res- 
ent;  but  it  can  add  nothing  that  is  new. 

Biologists  do  not  hesitate  to  draw  this  eonclusidii.  •"in  the 
lowest  known  organism,  in  which  not  even  a  nucleus  can  be  seen, 
is  found  potential) v  all  that  makes  the  world  varied  and  beau- 
tiful." 

That  is  to  sav,  one's  education  is  the  opening  of  his  ])owers 
of  converting  that  which  originally  was  external  to  him  into  con- 
stituent elements  of  himself,  ^\'hcn  he  has  readied  the  stage  at 
whicli  his  development  ceases,  one  can  say  with  much  truth  that 
all  his  environment  is  within  him. 

And  social  reformers,  as  their  experience  grows,  tend  more 
and  more  to  despair  of  doing  anything  real  for  the  man.  and  to 
tui-n  I  heir  forces  of  improvement  more  and  more  upon  the  child. 

It  follows  in  tlie  next  place  that  what  a  child  inherits  are 
not  actual  tendencies,  but  potential  faculties,  lliologists  some- 
times speak  as  if  it  were  possible  for  parents  to  transmit  tenden- 
cies or  propensities  towards  good  or  evil  to  their  offspring. 

The  process  of  evolution  is  said  to  be  one  by  which  evil  is 
being  jierpetually  eliminated  or  subjugated,  and  evil  cannot, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  a  primary  principle. 

''But,  if  it  be  true  that  acquired  characters  are  not  trans- 
mitted, then  even  tendencies  to  good  or  evil  cannot  come  by  in- 
heritance. No  child  is  born  vicious  or  virtuous.  It  is  only  by 
his  own  action  that  he  can  become  the  one  or  the  other.  He  is 
not  even. predisposed  to  virtue  or  vice,  unless,  indeed,  we  identify 
the  former  with  the  innate  impulse  towards  self-realization,  char- 


38  ■  KELTnious  i<:dl:c;atiun 

actcristic  of  all  life.  Not  eveu  the  most  unfortiiDatc  of  human 
beings  is  born  with  a  moral  taint.  A\'hat  he  inherits  are  powers, 
and  these  undeniably  may  vary  both  in  a  relative  and  in  an  aljso- 
Inte  sensO;,  so  that  the  appeal  of  the  cm  ironnicnt  may  mean  very 
different  things  to  dilfercnt  childi-cn.  and  the  education  of  the 
child  into  a  virtuous  manhood  mny  be  iniicb  more  dilllcult  in  one 
case  than  in  another." 

Professor  llufus  M.  Jones  (Pj'ofessor  of  Philosophy,  llaver- 
ford  College),  says:  "Slowly  the  facts  are  compelling  us  to  ad- 
mit that  the  range  and  scope  of  inheritance  have  been  over- 
emphasized. ^Fuch  ()['  wliicb  was  thought  to  ])e  transmitted  by 
heredity  we  now  know  is  gained  by  iinitalion,  both  unconscious 
and  conscious." 

Professor  J.  M.  Baldwin  states:  "No  one.  of  course,  be- 
lieves now,  if  indeed  anyone  did  in  Locke's  tiuie,  in  iuiuite  ideas. 
There  is  no  such  complex  furniture  in  the  infant's  mind  at 
birth  as  the  general  idea;  even  what  Kant  called  the  forms  of 
intuition,  space,  and  time,  modern  psychology  has  shown  to  be 
the  outcoiiie  of  elal)orate  synthesis.  The  infant's  experience  be- 
gins in  raw  .-eiisat ions,  feelings  ol'  ])lcasure  and  pain,  and  the 
motor  adaptal  iiuis  lo  wliicli  tliese  lend. 

"Jnasnineh  as  instincts  are  automatic,  consciousness  being 
present  at  all  instinctive  actions  only  as  a  spectator,  as  it  were, 
and  not  as  a  guide,  it  is  obvious  that  no  ethical  attribute  such 
as  %ood'  or  'bad'  can  1)e  a])])liod  to  Ihem,  or,  at  least,  to  the  in- 
fant for  possessing  them."" 

Personality. 

In  the  discussion  which  Rufus  Jones  undertakes  in  his 
SociAi.  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World  he  elicits  the  fact 
that  "It  is  impossible  to  see  what  eiul  there  could  be  to  person- 
ality. As  far  as  we  can  follow  it  out  we  discover  only  increas- 
ing possibilities.  It  seems  like  a  number  system,  in  which  how- 
ever fa  I'  you  have  counted,  you  can  always  add  one  more  num- 
ber. There  never  could  be  a  last  number.  There  could  no  more 
be  a  terminal  limit  to  personality.  To  bo  a  person  is  to  see 
something  beyond  the  present  attainment.  If  we  were,  as  per- 
sons, nothing  but  curious  functions  of  bodies,  then  of  course  we 
shoidd  cease  with  the  dissolution  of  the  body,  as  the  iridescent 


TIM-:   \A'I11;K  ok    IIIK  CIIILI)  ;!;» 

•    ^^s" "■>,  i:'  -■     . , .  ■         ■  . .    -  ■ 

colors  vanish  when  the  bubble  bursts.  JiuL  if  rather  the  body  is. 
only  a  medium  for  giving  temporal  manifestation  to  that  which 
is  essentially  spirit,  tlic  falling  away  of  the  body  may  be  only  a 
.«tage  in  the  process,  like  the  bursting  of  the  clirysalis  by  the 
insect  which  was  meant  to  have  wings  and  to  live  on  flowers. 
Tlie  fact  is.  personality  gets  no  snffieient  origin  in  the  phenom- 
enal world.  Nothing  here  explains  it.  From  the  first  it  trails 
clouds  of  glory. 

"AH  changes,  so  far  as  we  know.  l)elo\\'  the  realm  of  S(.'lf- 
consciousness  are  changes  which  are  caused  by  a  force  acting 
fro]n  behind — a  tergo,  i.e.,  a  force  which  acts  through  a  causal 
link.  Thus  the  engine  draws  the  train.  The  moon  moves  the 
tide.  The  wind  blows  down  the  tree.  The  forces  of  nature 
develop  the  plant.  None  of  these  things  select  or  choose.  They 
are  caused  from  without.  They  are  the  effects  of  causes  which 
can  be  described,  and  they  are  effects  which  can  be  accurately 
predicted. 

'A\'hen  wo  pass  over  from  causation  acting  from  belli nd  to 
clumges  j)]'oduccd  by  ideals  in  front,  we  cross  one  of  the  widest 
chasms  in  the  world.  It  is  one  of  those  facts  which  dis})roves 
the  easy  proverb,  'Nature  abhors  breaks.'  It  seems  like  a  pas- 
sage from  one  world-system  to  a  totally  different  sort.  In  one 
case  the  moving  cause  is  an  actual,  existing  situation  antecedent 
to  the  effect;  in  the  other,  the  moving  cause  is  an  unrealized 
ideal — something  which  as  yet  does  not  exist  in  the  world  of 
descriljable  things  at  all.  We  act  to  realize  something  which  has 
induced  us  to  act  before  it  existed  in  the  world  of  things.  The 
entire  spiritual  development  of  persons  is  of  this  front  type. 
BeloAv  man  everything  is  moved  by  coercion.  If  things  are  mov- 
ing toward  a  goal,  they  themselves  know  nothing  about  it,  and 
it  ]mist  be  either  accounted  for  as  an  accident  or  we  must  admit 
that  from  a  deeper  point  of  view  all  causation  would  be  discov- 
ered to  be  toward  a  goal  in  front.  In  this  case  the  end  and  goal 
would  be  present  from  the  first  as  a  directive  force  in  the  entire 
process  of  evolution." 

Infancy  and  Education. 

l)oth  Professor  Hill  and  President  Butler  have  pointed  out 
the  sisrnificance  of  infancv.     Savs  the  former:    "The  lower  ani- 


40  i;i:ij(;i()rs  i';i)i catidn 

iiials  are  l)orn  willi  an  ahiiost  coni]jlete  adaptation  for  the  pcr- 
i'oriiiaiiec  of  their  h rc-runctions.  Tlie  colt  stands  when  only  a 
few  hours  old.  At  the  age  of  three,  he  can  do  almost  all  he  can 
ever  do  in  his  life-time.  Jt  is  not  so  with  a  hnman  infant.  For 
years  it  is  ahsolutely  dependml  npon  others  for  the  continuance 
of  its  exislencc.  No  living  ti'eature  is  more  ignorant,  more  de- 
fenceless, more  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  l)cings  other  than  itself. 
Destined  U)\-  Ihe  highest  attainments  of  intelligence,  the  infant 
j)Ossesscs  the  least  automatic  adaptation  to  the  conditions  of  life. 
Everything  has  to  he  learned  from  the  heginning.  Instinct  is 
at  (he  minimum;  intellect,  undeveloped,  hut  potential,  is  at  the 
maximum.  Almost  everytliing  done  hy  the  child  is  done  l)y  con- 
scious physical  reaction,  not  mechanically.'"'  And  President  But- 
ler has  added:  "The  meaning  of  the  period  of  helplessness  or 
itifamy,  lies,  as  I  see  it,  at  the  bottom  of  any  scientific  and  philo- 
sophical understanding  of  the  part  played  hy  education  in  human 
life.  Infancy  is  a  })eriod  of  plasticity:  it  is  a  period  of  adjust- 
metd  ;  it  is  a  period  of  fitting  the  organism  to  its  environments; 
first,  physical  adjustment,  and  then  adjustment  on  a  far  larger 
and  broader  scale." 

The   New-Born  Child. 

Caswell  j'lllis.  Fellow  in  Psychology  of  Clark  University, 
calls  attention  to  the  significant  fact  that  for  some  time  after 
liirth  the  child  cannot  sec,  hear,  feel,  properly  smell,  or  taste. 
He  is  not  conscious  of  his  own  existence,  of  acts  whicli  are  reflex, 
for  the  first  week.  There  is  innate  in  him.  though  latent,  im- 
pulses or  instincts,  dormant,  gradually  unfolding  and  develop- 
ing into  activity;  not  all  at  oiu;e,  but  in  dilferent  stages  and 
periods  of  life. 

The  hereditary  trails  of  character  will  he  the  foundation 
Ijases  of  his  life,  which  it  is  the  function  of  Education  to  train 
and  exercise,  and  which,  when  thus  alTinted  and  developed,  so  it 
may  be  absorbed,  or  diminished,  by  his  environment,  will  result 
ill  the  adult  man. 

These  hereditary  trails,  while  ue\cr  transmitting  disease  or 
absolute  mental  or  nu)ral  habits.  un<pu'sti(mab1y  supply  impulses, 
tendencies,  capacities,  desires,  predispositions.  The  father's  sin 
is  indeed  visited  u])on  his  Child,  alas  I  too  far  beymid  the  fourth 


Till-:  NAii  i;k  (»i-  I  iik  (  iiii.i)  41 

gviii'ralioii.  ForiuiialL'ly  good  traits,  as  well  as  bad  ones,  come 
down  to  posterity  through  Heredity  or  so-called  Atavism. 

For  the  iirst  foui-  years  of  the  child's  life,  family  education 
is  his  t-liief  enviroiiiiiciit.  Imcii  before  he  can  speak,  his  \\'ill 
has  begun  lo  assi-rl  itself  in  aciinn.  lie  is  a  creature  of  imita- 
tion and  tries  to  reproduce  all  lliat  he  sees  others  do  around  him. 

During  tlie  first  year  he  has  leariicd  to  hold  up  his  head,  to 
see.  to  smell,  to  taste,  to  know  sounds  an<l  coloi-s.  and  to  know- 
individuality  of  ol)jeets.  h(>  can  also  ereep  and  crawl.  In  liis 
second  }ear,  he  lias  learned  to  stand  and  walk',  to  speak  some 
words  and  to  understand  the  meaning  of  a  great  many  more. 

An  act  is  educative  when  it  is  learned,  and  then  only.  After 
it  has  become  a  lial)it  it  is  a  second  nature,  and  is  no  longer 
t'dueative.  '^J'lie  more  man  is  ediu-aled  tlie  nioi'e  does  he  become 
"a  bundle  of  habits."" 

In  the  lliii'd  and  fonuli  yeai's.  the  child.  lia\ing  learne(|  t(_) 
speak,  is  con-tanlly  asking  questions,  gaining  infoi-malion  as 
the  result  (d'  older  peo})le's  observations. 

The  imitative  faculty,  ^which  is  so  strong  in  the  child,  has 
the  form  of  self-activity  that  strives  to  enuinci})ate  Self  from 
its  natural  impulses  and  heredity,  by  assimilating  the  results  of 
the  experiences  of  others.  Only  souls  can  imitat(\.  and  the 
lower  we  go  from  man,  the  less  we  sec  of  imitation.  It  is  the 
first  step,  the  lowest  phase,  in  the  evolution  and  development  of 
spiritual  achievements.  With  language  and  imitation  begin  the 
ehihrs  contemplation  of  Ideals,  seeing  the  real  with  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  ideal  being  realized. 

The  full  life  of  Ideals  does  not  appear  until  }»nberty  com- 
mences; but  its  germ  is  liere. 

QUKSTtOXS    FOR   THOUGHT  AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  ''the  di.scovery  of  the  cliild"? 

2.  Why  is  it  at  all  necessary  to  study  child-nature? 

3.  Discuss  Heredity  r.s.  EnvironnieiU. 

4.  What  is  the  significance  of  Infancy? 

5.  How  does  it  affect  the  process  of  I'ldueatieu? 
G.  Is  Infancy  becoming  lengthened? 

7.    What  are  the   factors  concerned   in   character-formation?    Explain. 
Give  concrete  examples  of  the  inlluence  of  each  in  your  life. 


CHAi'TKlJ  1\-. 

A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY. 

Self-AciivUij,  Brain,  Consciousness,  Tliinl-ing,  Ideas, 
Amicrception. 

SUGGESTED   READIXCJS. 

Self-Activity: 

♦Meaning  ov  Education.     Butler,     pp.  43-47. 

*Up  TiiKOUGii  Childhood.     Iluhbell.     130  ff. 

Psychologic  Foundation  of  Education.     JIanis.     pp.   20-30. 

Body  and  Brain: 

Physiology.     Kirkc. 

I'SYCiiOLOGY.     t/rt»K'.s.      Vol.   I.      Bi-aiu. 

M'.LEMENTS   OF  PSYCHOLOGY.     Tlionidikc.     Xorvous    System. 

Consciousness. 

♦Talks  to  Teacheus.     Jarnea.     pp.   14-21. 
*Xe\v   Psychology.     Gordy.     Index. 
*I!i;ii:fei;  Couuse.     James.      Index. 

Thinking: 

FouND.VTiONS  oi''  EDUCATION.      Harris,     pp.  32-37.   lis.   20i;-227. 
*TJp  Through  Childhood.     Iluhhctl.     pp.   2<i2-2H>. 
*The   Xew   Psychology.      Gordti.      pp.   3Ui-:i17. 
*B]tiEFEK  CouHSE.      Jaiiics.      Index.    Kensoninn- 

Ideas,  Acquisition  and  Association: 

♦Talks  to  TEACiiEns.     Jannx.     pi».   144-1.".",   7!)-'.)l. 
♦Priefeu  Course.     Jame.^.     Index. 

Apperception: 

*Tiie  Mind  of  a  Child.     Riclimoiul. 

Elements  op  Child  Psychology.     Bahlahi.     pp.   11-12. 

*Up  Through  Childhood.     Iluhbell.     pp.  104-10."). 

How  to  Conduct  the  Recitation.     MvMurruy.     pp.  S-'J. 

Teacher  Training.     Roads,     p.  07. 

♦Talks  to  Teachers.     Jamoi.     pp.   154-168. 

♦The  New  Psychology.     James,     pp.  34G-353. 

♦Briefer   Course.     James,     p,   120. 

The  Old  versus  the  New  Psychology. 

Two  men  have,  to  a  large  extent  made  the  iloclern  Psychol- 
oo-Y.     One  is  the  great  leader,  Professor  William  James,  the 


A  SJ"l])Y  t)l''  PSY(l]OLO(iV  4:5 

Other  is  the  Lite  l*rofessor  Corc^y,  of  New  York  University. 
Gordy's  cliief  text  book  is  called  The  New  Psychology.  This 
does  not  mean  that  Gordy  wrote  an  Old  Psychology  and  then 
later  another  book;  but  the  term,  the  New  Psycholoo-y,  is  the 
definite  term  for  the  newer  view  of  tlic  woi-kings  of  man.  Tlie 
Old  Psychology  is  what  we  might  term  Divisional  Psychology, 
the  New  P.sycliology  is  Unitary.  The  great  fault  of  the  Old 
Psychology  was  to  set  up  the  Soul  as  an  absolute  Spiritual  Being, 
witli  a  certain  faculty  of  its  own.  by  which  the  several  activities 
of  renu'nil)ering,  imagining,  reasoning,  loving,  etc..  were  ex- 
]t]ained  without  reference  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  woi-ld  with 
which  they  dealt.  It  was  par  excellence  a  Faculty  Psychology. 
The  New  Psychology  treats  the  mind  as  a  unit,  and  (■s])eoially 
emphasizes  the  conviction  that  mental  life  is  ])riinarily  what 
James  calls  Teteological ;  that  is  to  say,  that  our  various  ways  of 
feeling  and  thinking  have  grown  to  what  they  are  because  of 
their  utility  in  shaping  our  reactions  on  the  other  world.  This 
is  the  essence  of  the  New  Psychology. 

Self-Activity. 

The  great  fact  to  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  in  the  study 
of  Psychology  is  the  existence  everywhere  of  Self-Activity. 
Self-Activity  means  the  Self-Originating  Activity  found  in  all 
life  which  works  from  within  to  accomplish  certain  results  on 
the  eii\  imminent  without.  A\'e  see  it  in  Nature,  in  the  plant 
consuming  its  food  supply  from  without.  ^Ye  see  it  in  a  higher 
degree  in  tlie  animal  world,  which  not  only  takes  in  food  from 
without,  but  reproduces  and  constructs  with  the  additional  pow- 
ers of  locomotion  and  feeling.  Still  higher  comes  man,  having 
all  the  preceding  powers,  with  reasoning  and  creative  faculties 
added.  The  highest  Self-Activity  is  God,  the  only  absolute  Self- 
Originating  Activity,  the  ultimate  well-spring  of  Self-Activity 
below. 

"We  may  even  go  further  than  this,  and  speak  of  intelligence 
in  all  creation.  It  may  be  one  of  the  forces  in  crystallization 
under  which  every  crystal  assumes  its  own  form  the  world  over, 
and  that  form  so  definite  and  so  absolute  that  no  two  crystals 
of  ditferent  salts  are  absolutely  alike.  The  crystal  of  sodium 
chloride  or  common  salt  (NaCl.),  differs  absolutely  from  that 


44  RKIJClors    KDICAIIOX 

of  sodium  .sul|)liate.  So  again  the  inorganic  crystals  dilVcr 
from  the  oi'gaiiic.  W'lielhor  we  call  I  his  force  a  Vis  Inlernus 
or  r/.s  Exlenius.  it  makes  no  matter,  ll  is  a  kind  of  intelligence 
- — not  mentality,  but  intelligence — a  kind  of  self-activity. 

In  the  A'egetable  Kingdom  it  is  clearly  seen.  Professor 
]\[ark  Baldwin  produced  a  book  on  Intelligence  in  Plants 
AND  AxniAi.s.  Some  ])lants  have  a  highly  organized  nervous  sys- 
tem, like  the  sensitive  plant.  The  roots  of  a  willow  tree  will 
travel  a  loiig  distance  in  the  ground  in  search  of  water.  A  root 
will  api)roach  a  stone  and  turn  before  touching  it,  with  a  layer 
of  earth  betweeii  it  and  the  stone.  It  is  said  by  botanists  that 
each  plant  has  its  own  angle  peculiar  to  itsell',  at  which  every 
twig  at  first  branches  off.  The  branches  may  turn  upward  or 
downward  or  sideways  later,  according  to  the  results  of  environ- 
ment, as,  for  example,  to  gain  the  light  or  to  avoid  another  tree, 
or  a  house,  but  the  hereditary  angle  is  always  the  same.  Thus 
in  every  stage  of  nature  in  her  evolution,  we  see  self-originating 
power.  The  great  practical  residt  of  this  |ii'imary  doctrine  of 
self-activity  is  that  no  Impression  can  cwv  be  received  by  any 
living  thing  without  a  corresponding  Expression.  Xothing  is 
ever  seen,  felt,  touched,  tasted,  heard,  known  through  any  of  the 
five  senses  that  does  not  at  some  time,  in  some  way,  result  in  an 
Expression.     Without  il  there  could  be  no  Education. 

Evolutionary  Remains. 

I're.-ident  G.  Stanley  Hall  said  in  TiiK  rjuxcirLKs  of  Ke- 
LiGious  Education:  "Now  when  we  look  at  tlie  Child,  what  do 
we  find?  We  iind  this  great  result,  which  came  with  surprise 
to  many  of  us  as  it  slowly  dawned,  aiul  as  the  hand  mounted  up 
it  became  so  formidable  that  not  one  single  person  here  can 
look  the  facts  in  the  face  and  get  the  common  information  that 
is  now  available,  without  accepting  it.  It  is  this:  that  the  child 
normally  represents  the  history  of  the  human  race.  That  is,  it  has, 
in  its  early  stages,  a  grjsat  deal  of  the  animal  about  it.  There  is  a 
great  deal  in  its  physical  and  psychical  nature  that  suggests  the 
higher  animals.  We  know  that  every  child  has  at  least  133  rudi- 
mentary organs  in  its  body  (so-called),  which  are  atrophied,  and 
which  suggest  that  something  a  little  like  what  the  evolutionists 
tell  us  must  be  ti'uc     Whv  is  it,  for  instance,  that  a  few  months 


A  sri  l)V   OF   I'SVCllOLOaV 


4."> 


•  k'!'"'!'*'  liirlii  1  li;i(l  ;iii  iiiiJiH'iist,'  oriiaii  Tor  bix>;ilhiii,i^-  in  llic  wjiIlt 
— i-()iii|i|cir  <:ill< — wliich  gradually  transformed,  so  thai  soon 
afUM-  l)ii-ili  ilif  u|i|)('r  ])ai't  of  tlicni  had  been  twisted  around  int<v 
ii(»lril>.  ihc  lower  |(ari  had  l)crn  lurutMl  around  and  grown  inlo 
voeal  chords,  another  part  had  l)een  spiralled  around  into  coehlea, 
or  the  organs  of  hearing?  Why  is  it  that  I  was  a  gill-l)reathing 
animal  at  one  time,  suggesting  aquatic  life?  Why  is  it.  too, 
that  the  infant  has  all  the  caudal  appendages?  Why  is  it  that 
we  have  the  vermiform  a^jpendix,  and  why  all  these  loo  dilferent 
organs,  of  absolutely  no  use,  but  many  of  them  a  positive  dis- 
advanlagc  in  our  human  stage?  What  do  they  mean?  Thev 
mean  thai  wc  pass  up  the  whole  histoi-y  of  animal  life,  and  lliat 
from  th(>  time  a  few  months  before  birth,  uj)  to  maiui'itv. 
every  child  I'epresents  in  his  history  every  stage  of  animal  life 
as  rcpcatc(|  since  the  world  began.  You  and  1  have  all  bcm  a 
union  of  similar  organs:  those  organs  have  divided,  and  those 
halves  divided  again,  until  at  last  it  has  appeared  that  W"  were 
going  lo  be  an  iinei'tebrate.  then  a  |)rotovei"tebi'al('.  then  a 
niclazoau.  then  a  ■\ci'tebrate.  and  then  one  of  the  higher  \ei'- 
tcbi'alcs.  ami  then  a  (piadrumanal.  and  then  a  Ijimanal  crcat  ui'o. 
and  linally  a  num.  and  then,  perhajjs,  a  man  of  high  character."" 
This  is  known  as  tlie  liecapilulation  Tliconj,  and  will  be 
referred  to  jnore  fully  later  on.  Its  significance  here  is  to 
-hiiw  the  continuity  of  life  in  its  (levelo])menr. 

The   Lowest  Form  of  Life. 

The  lowest   form   of   lib'.   |)i-act  ically   s])eakiug.   would   be  a 
singU'-celled  animal,  like  the  jelly  fish,  one  of  the  moiiera.      In 

it  we  can  see  in  embryo  many  of 
the  ])owei-s  later  developed  and 
s]»ecialized  in  the  higher  stages  of 
(■\()lution.  Picture  a  tiny  jelly 
lish  under  the  cover  glass  of  a 
microscope,  a  mere  bit  of  proto- 
jilasm.  I'lace  near  it.  but  not 
touching  it.  a  tiny  crundj  of 
Ijread.  The  jelly  fish  is  merely 
prot()])lasm  and  niteleus.  It  has 
no  eyes,  no  fingers,  no  hands.  It  presently  senses  the  crundj  of 
bread.     Out  shoot  the  pseudo-pods,  its  false  legs,  reallv  i)ortions 


Cut  No.  1.     An  Amoeba. 


40 


l!I-:iJ(;i()l  S    KDICATJOX 


of  its  own  l)it(l_v.  As  it  pi'oject.s  iti^oH'  towards  the  bread,  it  di-aws 
a  eon-espdiidiiig  mass  of  protoplasm  from  its  former  position. 
Presently  the  bread  is  surrounded,  and  in  a  short  time  begins  to 
disappear,  becoming  homogeneous  with  the  pi-otopasm  of  the  jelly 
fish.  Tims,  .sa/i,s  eyes,  sans  hands,  sans  mouth,  smtx  leeili.  sans 
knife  and  fork,  Mr.  Jelly  Fish  has  devoured  Ids  meal.  This  is 
the  lowest  form  of  life,  of  self-activity.  As  we  go  Ingher  iii  the 
scale,  cells  ai'c  not  only  massed  together  and  muUiplied.  I)ut 
differentiated  in  cliaractcr. 

Tliei'e  are  various  ways  of  self-growth  and   muhiplication. 
The  most  common  way,  however,  is  by  simple  iision  or  division 


Cl'T  No.  2.    Cell — iJlvinioii  ami  Dvrdojniiciit.    ( After  Frcjj.) 

— as  the  single  cell  divides  in  half,  then  those  halves  again  di- 
vide, making  four,  then  eight,  etc.,  until  the  cell  wall  contains 
a  mass  of  tiny  cells  resembling  granulations. 

In  the  animal  kingdom  there  are  several  hundred  kinds  of 
cells,  each  with  its  peculiar  cliaracteristic  formation  and  its 
inicleus.  One  of  the  great  essential  laws  of  reproduction  is  that 
cells  can  oidy  rein-odnce  tlieir  kind.     Livei-  cells  can  reproiluce 

liver  cells  only;  spleen  cells,  spleen 
cells — liver  cells  never  reproducing 
<l)leen  cells,  and  vice  versa. 

Types  of  Cells. 

.lust  glance  for  a  brief  moment  at 
some  of  the  types  of  cells  making  up 
ihc  wonderful  bodies  of  the  animal 
kingdom. 

When  we  add  adipose  tissue — tiiat 

is,  become  stout,  the  fat  cells  are  mere 

globules  of  oil,  like  the  accompanying 

ordh,ary  ^Fat%ciis.         picture.    The  epithelial  cells  that  line 

[After  Klein.)  certain   portions   of  the  liody   within 


A  Sll  l)V  oi'"   1»SV(  lloiJXiV 


C'l  T   No.   4. 

Ei)ithcli(tl  Cells. 

illcnie.) 


Ct-T   No.    5. 

y'lihiiitdrij   Mu-scle   Fibres. 

I  Shfiriiey.) 


Cut  Xo.  G.     I II  r. , I, Hilary  Muscle  Fibres. 
(Klein  and   Xolile   Siniili.) 

CiT    Xo.    7. 

Icart   Muscle   Fibres. 

(.1.  E.  ticMfer.) 

and  form  the  skin  williout;  arc  ni-xt  shown.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  muscle  cells — Voluntary,  Involuntary,  and  the  Heart 
niuscle  cells.  All  of  them  differ  in  form.  Each  is  so  specialized 
that  it  can  produce  its  own  kind  of  muscle  cell  only.  Two  of 
them,  ihe  Voluntary  and  Involuntary,  are  shown  ahove. 

Cartilage  cells  are  also  peculiar,  and  when  cartilage  cells 
are  hardened  by  the  introduction  of  lime,  they  are  turned  into 
bony  tissues.     (Figs.  8  and  9.) 

There  are  many  other  kinds  of  cells,  such  as  the  simple 
tissue  of  the  lungs,  connective  tissue,  ciliated  cells,  nerve  cells, 
etc.  Then  there  are  the  cells  that  are  found  in  the  organs,  such 
as  the  liver,  stomach,  kidneys,  sjjk'eii.  thyroid  gland,  etc. 


4S 


RKLKMorS   KDICAIION 


Wt 


►  •    • 


;,»l« 


Cl  T    Nil.    ;>.       Ittnlll    'lifisuc. 


( shuiiicji.) 


ri  T  .No.  s. 

Arlii-iiliir  ('(III iliii/c. 
(A.   E.   Schdfer.) 

J.t't  US  see  liow  llie  same  kind  oi'  c-i'lls  arc  planned  to  woi-k 
together.  Here  is  a  group  of  ciliated  cells,  such  as  are  found  in 
the  lungs,  the  nose,  and  certain  other  jiortions  of  the  l)ody. 
'riic  little  ciliae  move  in  rhythm,  lirsl  lurning  toward  the  lluid 
or  solid  lo  he  pushed  along,  the  one  cell  hi'inging  it  over  to  the 
second,  the  second  to  the  third,  until  in  jjerfect  rhyrr-e  it  is 
passed  ah)ng.     The  same  action  is  seen  in  the  oesophagus  and 


Cut  No.  10. 
Ciliiited  Cells  of  till  Tiiacli  ". 
(KoUiker.) 


Clt  No.  11. 
Hair    Follicle,    Show- 
ing Hair. 
Root  and  Sweat  and 
Sebaceaus  Glands. 
{Gray.) 


the  intestines,  where  rhythmic  muscle-motion,  like  the  stripping 
of  a  hand  in  milking,  passes  the  material  along.     (Fig.  10.) 

Still  again  avc  find  the  assemblage  of  different  kinds  of 
cells  for  a  single  specialized  work.     In  the  accompanying  dia- 


A   STl   1)\-  dl'    |•S^  (   IK  i|.(  n.\ 


49 


i:i-;iin  (if  ;i  luiir  I'dllicic,  \\i'  .-cc  llic  hair,  its  j-iioK  the  rally  tis.-iic 
around  it.  ihr  (oiincclive  tissue,  llic  liltic  oil  gland  and  liie 
sweat  iiland.  all  uiiihMl  foi-  a  dofinilt'  work.     (  I'"io-.  H.) 

In  the  next  lliiH'c  |iictuivs  are  shown  ilir  union  eells  of  simi- 
lar or  dilTciiiii  charai'ter  in  an  organ;  tirsl,  a  cross  section  of  the 
Thyroid  (Hand,  ihen  the  Salivary  (ilands,  and  third,  the  wonder- 
ful Ixc'tina  of  the  Kve,  where  nvei-  tweiilv  layers  of  difl'ei'cnl  colls 


(,"i  T  No.  1: 


Thynj'ul  (ilaiiil.      {Alcock.) 


are  massed  in  the  tiny,  tissue-like  layer  on  which  the  images  of 
the  eye  impinge.     (Figs.  12,  13,  14.) 

Tt  is  as  if  we  had  a  regiment  composed  of  white  men  and 
yelli>w-  men  and  hlack  men;  of  large  men  and  snuill  men;  of 
Engli.sh.  and  French,  and  Italians,  and  Kussians,  and  Indians, 
and  Chinese,  and  Japanese,  and  Africans;  of  fat  men  and  thin 
men ;  of  tall  men  and  short  men,  of  all  languages  and  races,  yet, 
as  one  man,  under  the  one  general,  obeying  the  one  word  of  com- 
mand. So  we  have  in  our  l)ody  thousands  of  millions  of  cells 
of  many  different  kinds,  with  \ai'vint:-  functions,  all  uiulei'  the 


50 


]!I-:li(;I(»i  s  i;im  (  aiion 


Ci-T  No.  i::. 

SdHrnr)/  (Ihiiiil.      i  Kiillikcr.) 


_^_ 

" 

rN" " 

-.  -■"."    .'*'~~^"^,*^ 

^JSS^'P"^'^**^ 

1 

'    •(! 

<  v:: 

C'  '' 

-^ 

\Q 

iff. 

1 

*  j^ 

L 

»ag 

gi^bi 

.^* 

("IT     Xd.     11. 

Tlif    Huuiun    h'rIiiKi.      yl'iic.) 


Physiolu^ical  Fsyclwlor 


Cut   No.    16. 
Scctinnx  of  Ihr  f^pinal  Cord.   iThomannA 


Cut  Xo.   15. 

Brain   and  Spinal   Cord. 

{  \''in    (lihiicUli  n.\ 


A  STll)^    (IK   l'S\(  ll()L(t(;\ 


\ 


■•'\SjS:b 


[  ^.f  OSTMO- 


•_-;,• 

■-■    '    3€^-ti 

IDJHG, 

b 

■'^^ 

"-^'^-1^ 

q' 

^^ 

/ 

rt-ft 

^<.  ,■  .r 

•  ^  / 

/ 

ii*.  , 

1          %:^l 

'i 

\:i^A-^ 


Cut  Xo.   IT. 
ScctlOMH  of  the  Spinal  Cord.      (A.    E.  Srhiifcr.i 


IMll.KMdl  S    i:i)l CATIOX 


iiiaiKlalc  of  one  ]'^<jo,  all   inervated  by   nervo-telephoiie   wires, 
whereby  they  act  as  a  unit  in  the  great  machine. 
The   Nervous  System. 

We  ^uive  a  diagram  of  the  spinal  cord  and  the  brain,  to- 
gether with  cross-sections  of  the  spinal  cord.     (Figs.  ]•'>.  Hi.  K.) 
If  we  consider  the  evolntion  of  the  brain,  we  shall  lind  that 
it  is  reallv  the  spinal  cord  turned  in  upon  itself,  after  the  fash- 
ion   of   a    cockle-shell   wound   around    in   a 
-|iiral. 

Looking  at  the  cross-section  (Fig.  "^1  ).  the 
daik  gray  matter  is  shown  in  the  margin,  and 
ihc  white  matter, really  the  fibres  of  the  luain 
cells,  is  in  the  centre.  In  the  very  centre  is 
seen  the  hollow  canal  which  runs  all  through 
the  spinal  cord.  Looking  again  at  the  sjiiral 
and  keeping  in  mind  that  it  represents  the 
s])inal  cord  as  seen  at  the  cross-section,  one 
can  ]-eadily  understand  how  the  gray  matter 
will  he  found  on  the  surface  or  cortt'X  and 
in  the  interior.  All  the  while  matter  will  be 
I'onnd,  therefore,  in  layers  around  the  hol- 
:■  tli vision  of  the  canal  in  the  brain.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  germs  can  travel  in  the  fluid  of  the  canal  from 
the  loAvest  portion  of  the  spinal  cord  to  the  centre  of  the  brain. 


Cut  No.    IS. 
The     Evolution     of 
■  the  Spinal  Conl. 
(Smith.) 

lows  formed   bv  tl 


Cut  No.   19. 

Cerebrum   p-om   Ahove. 

(Van  Gchiichtcn.) 


Cut   No.   20. 

Cerebrum  from  Si(l(. 

{Van   Oehuchten.) 


A  sTi  i)\  (iF  i's\  I  ih  •l.(t(;^■ 


5H 


I  he  hrain    IS  siKiwii 
;llli|   afl.       TIlc   l\\  II   licllli.--|ilicl'( 

;in    l'Jii;lisli  wiiliuil.  cMciiliiii:' 


•^^ 


idiii   ;il)n\i'  (low  iiwards  and    I'roiii  forc 
I'loiii  al((i\c  (Inwmvarils  resemble 
lal    llic  cDiivolut ions  are  not  tlie 
same.      The     convolu- 
tions     are      indicated 
where  the  gray  matter 
dips    down    into    the 
win  to  matter  in  folds. 
'I' I II' cross-sect  ion  shows 
low   tlial   dipping  oc- 
cni-s      and      indicates 
r(!iii;Iily  how  the  fd)res 
run.     W'hih'  the  weight 
o|'  llic  cnlire  brain  is 
only   about  one  forty- 
second   of   the   weight 
of  the  entire  body,  it 
Cut  No.  21.  ''■'"     been     calculated 

A   Section   of   the  Ccrehnnn.      {Afl(r   l-Jdiiii/ir.)   that        the      SUpplv      of 

blood  is  one-eighth  of 
that  used  by  the  whole  body,  llow  essential  this  su|t|)ly  of  blood 
is  becomes  evident  it  it  is  in  any  way  inlei'l'ereil  with.  Stop  any 
one  of  the  great  arteries  leading  to  the  brain  and  consciousness  is 
at  once  dissipated.  Dr.  Lombard  found  that  the  temperature 
varies  rajiidly,  though  sliglitly.  during  waking  hours.  He 
found  tliat  a  noise  or  anything  that  attracted  attention  would 
produce  an  elevation  of  temperature.  The  rise  of  temperature 
is  also  produced  by  thought  or  emotion.  ^Mosso.  tlie  Italian  in- 
vestigator, found,  with  careful  balances,  that  the  weight  of  the 
head  increased  in  direct  jiroportion  to  the  profundity  of  thought, 
sliowing  that  the  l)lood  Hows  more  rapidly  to  the  brain  when  one 
is  tliiiddng. 

Weight  of  the   Brain. 

.Al.  .Mathie<:a.  an  anthropologist  of  Prague,  has  settled  by 
experiment  beyond  doubt  the  long  asserted  fact  that  the  weight 
of  the  brain  of  educated  persons  is  urealer  than  that  of  the 
common  crowd.  ]Ie  took  the  brains  of  235  persons  between 
the  ages  of  20  and  GO  years,  of  varying  occupations  and  intel- 
lectual culture,  and  for.nd  that   the  brain  of  the  day  laborer 


54  llELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

weighed  I.IOO  grammes;  workmen  and  unskilled  laborers,  1,423; 
porters,  guardians  and  watchers,  1,-J3G;  mechanics,  1,450;  busi- 
ness men  and  photographers'  assistants,  1,4C8,  and  physicians 
and  professors,  1,500. 

These  statistics  show  that  the  weight  of  the  brain  increases 
in  gradual  ])rogression.  True  also  is  the  fact  that  the  sale  of 
alcoholic  di-inks  is  not  conducive  to  cerebral  development, 
as  shown  by  the  light  weight  of  the  brains  of  brewers,  beer-sliop 
keepers,  and  waiters. 

Madison  C.  Peters  says:  ''The  number  of  bones  in  the 
human  body  is  variously  estimated,  say,  two  hundred  and  forty 
(the  bones  vary  in  different  periods  of  life,  several,  separated  in 
youth,  being  united  in  old  age)  ;  these  bones  have  forty  distinct 
indentations,  four  hundred  and  forty-six  muscles  within,  so  that 
the  bones  and  muscles  have  ujiwards  of  fourteen  thousand  in- 
dentations. There  are  not  loss  than  ten  thousand  nerves,  with  an 
equal  number  of  veins  and  arteries,  one  thousand  ligaments, 
four  thousand  lacteals  and  lympliatics,  one  hundred  thousand 
glands,  and  the  skin  contains  not  less  than  two  hundred  millions 
of  pores,  all  of  which  are  so  many  avenues  of  health  or  sickness, 
life  or  death. 

"The  heart,  about  ten  ounces  in  weight,  contracts  about 
four  thousand  times  every  hour,  and  through  it  during  that 
period  passes  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  blood,  while 
within  tlie  compass  of  a  day  it  makes  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand  pulsations  and  in  a  year  more  than  thirty-six  millions; 
it  performs  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  mechanical  work  of  the 
body,  exerting  a  force  that  would  lift  its  own  weight  13,000  feet 
every  hour.'' 

Neurones  or  Nerve  Fibres. 

J I  W(ndd  be  hopeless  to  try  to  describe  the  practical  infini- 
tude of  the  nerve  cells  or  neurones  that  transmit  stimuli  here 
and  there.  Even  if  we  knew  the  exact  arrangement  of  each 
neurone  in  a  man's  brain,  it  would  take  a  model  as  large  as 
S.  Paul's  Cathedral  to  make  them  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
Consider  that,  counting  at  the  rate  of  fifty  a  minute,  it  would 
take  a  man  working  twelve  hours  every  day  over  two  hundred 
vcars  mcrclv  to  ccnint  the  nerve  cells  of  one  man.     Dr.  Thorn- 


A  sri  j)v  ui'  I'.'-VLJioi.o'iV 


dike's  latest  figures  are  that  the  nerves,  as  estimated,  nuniljer 
three  lliousand  luillioiis  (if  neurones.     "Each  of  those  is  itself 

:i    complex    organ,    and    is 

often  capable  of  ]nany  e<ui- 

lU'ctions.       Sinee    it    would 

lake  tliree  lifetimes  to  mere- 

y  count  the  neurones  and 

ii'dlialdy    tli(_'    lifetimes    of 

lii'ee  Melcliisedecs  to  count 

ilieir  cimueci ions,  it  is  evi- 

<leiit   thai   the  hi-aiu  is  eoni- 

)lieate(l   eiidugh  to  register 

he  I'iehest  and  most  active 

luinau  experience." 

An  indivi(hial  nei've  cell 
is  now  showji.  'J'here  is  seen  the  cell  l)(Hly,  the  nueh-us  and  some 
of  the  many  hraneiies.  (ienerally  speaking,  the  cell  bodies  are 
placed  towards  the  surface  of  tlie  spinal  ((u-d  and  the  cortex  of 
the  brain,  and  the  fibres  hang  downwards.  The  grey  matter  is 
really  cau.'^ed  by  the  mass  of  tiie  dark  cell  bodies,  while  the  white 
matter  is  the  fibres. 

If  the  brain  cells  were  all  ])laced  on  the  same  plane,  we 
would  get  a  diagrammatic  scheme  like  the  following;  but  as  they 


Cut    No.    j:>.      .1    Section    'Through    the    Brain    Carter,    Shoiriiu/    Xcrre 
Connections.     Diugrainntutiv.      (Kiillikrr.) 


56 


IM'M.K.Ktl  S    i;i)l('.\Tl(>N 


are  not  on 
one  shown. 
Jt  is  ;i 
apples:   <'iit 


](■  .-iiiiH'  |il;mc.  we  j'cally  .-ccurc  a  i)irturf  like  this 

(('ill  -il.j 

il'  we  wei'e  In  (lri\c  a   clcavei'  thi-ouali  a  basket  of 

won  111  be  cut  through  the  skin,  another  through 
the  stem,  aiiolbn-  .me  would  be  shaved  oft  at  the  lower  end,  the 
rmirtb  would  be  cul  through  the  centre 
one  way.  and  the  lii'tli  through  the  centre 
aimllier  way,  and  the  sixth  half-way  be- 
iwcei).  Si)  that  we  woubl  really  get  all 
-ba[)('s  in  (Uir  sections.  Cell  bodies  are 
rni bodied  in  the  general  mass  of  the  brain 
coi'lex.  or  I'ather  of  the  margin  of  the 
spinal  (Di'd  as  it  has  been  wound  around 
in  the  >]iii'al  cMiJution  of  the  brain.  Look- 
ing again  al  I  lie  diagrammatic  scheme  of 
I  lie  connection  of  the  brain  cells,  it  will  be 
-^(■(■n  that  any  cell  theoretically  can  reach 
any  other  cell.  Theoretically  speaking 
von  can  go  lo  any  local  country  telegraph 
ollicc  and  reach  any  oilier  >lalion  in  the 
entire  world.  ]'olenlially  you  are  in  con- 
ned ion  -with  the  world.  So  potentially 
an\-  cell  of  ilie  body  of  any  kind  can  lie 
I'eacbed  by  sending  cm-rents  from  any  oth- 
er cell,  ^'on  can  almost  direct  your  blood 
bv  your  mental  |io\\er  lo  any  ])orli(in  of 
the  body.  The  impressions  from  the  most 
I'emote  section  are  received  promptly 
ibrougb  our  ner\i)us  telephone  system  at 
beadquariei's.  acted  upon,  and  the  corre- 
sponding command  oi-  judgment  tele- 
phoned back  to  the  sending  section, 
fibres  are  shown,  indicating  the  Insulat- 


Clx  Nu.  '24. 

The  layei''i  of  ffic 
cortical  gran  matter 
of  the  ccri\irii)i\. 
(  Mcijiurt.  > 


Indiviilual  nerve 
ing  Sheaib.  the  ^Medulla  and  the  Xodes  (ISTodes  of  l>anvier). 
Each  section  of  a  nerve  is  called  a  neurone.  We  see  a  direct 
analogy  in  our  present  telegraph  and  fele]du)ne  systems,  under 
which  we  have  our  wires  with  their  insulation  and  the  relay  sta- 
tions at  every  little  distance.      (Cut  'lb.) 


A  s■^^l)^■  ok  i'sv(  iioLoCjiY 


57 


\,,      _•.,.         Illillhllill     ,-inii'ini,     _M   liflinC    COIIIK-Cll 


OSTERIOR    ROOT 


CiT  No.  26.     Diagram  Showing  Ascviidiiig  ami 
Descending  Columns.      (A.  E.  Schafer.) 


58 


ItELIGIOLS  EDUCATION 


111  Cut  No.  26  we  are  given  an  idea  of  a  single  nerve 
inmk  ill  wliicli  are  seen  bundles  of  nerve  fibres.  Some  of  these 
nerve  fibres  arc  ascending;  that  is,  afferent,  or  going  towards  the 
brain;  and  some  arc  descending,  that  is,  efferent,  or  going  away 
from  flic  l)i-;iiii. 

In  I  lie  |»icturc  of  a  cross  section  of  a  spinal  cord,  we  have 
iiidicalcd  how  these  dilTercnt  fibres  are  placed  in  a  diitcrent  lo- 
calily,  so  tliat  were  we  to  cut  a  section  of  the  cord  witli  a  l^uife, 
tlie  resulting-  dccav  or  degeneration  of  llie  nerve  fibres  would 


Cut    No.    27.    Xcrrr  Trunk  Sliuirini/  ]iuit<tl<'.s  of  Xcrccs.      (Harris.) 


differ.  In  those  portions  where  the  descending  nerve  fibres  run 
the  deciiy  \\diild  lie  downwards,  aAvay  from  the  l)rain:  in  those 
sections  where  the  ascending  fibres  run  the  decay  will  be  iip- 
wards,  or  lowards  the  brain.  So  fibres  can  carry  impressions 
only  in  liieir  own  direction,  and,  so  far  as  we  know,  tlie  nerve 
currents  cannot  be  reversed.  This  bundling  of  fibres  with  the 
double  insulation  on  the  surface  corresponds  to  the  large  subway 
pipes  in  which  our  telephone  and  telegraph  wires  are  buried  in 
New  York  City. 

All  along  tlie  spinal  cord  are  little  brains,  })ortions  of  the 
nervous  system  presiding  over  special  functions.  Such,  for  ex- 
ample, are  the  centres  devoted  to  breathing,  to  (lie  nction  of  the 
heart,  to  the  acts  of  Nature. 

Wo  ninv  ]\i\yo  tlireo  dilforent  jirocesses  as  a  result  of  an  im- 


A  .STl  1)V  Ui-'  J'SVl  Jlul,(JLiY 


59 


prossion  from  witliout  :  (1)  'Vhv  iin])i'cssion  may  come  from 
along  a  nerve  to  the  s|)iii;il  eoiil.  and  unconscionsly  the  expres- 
sions go  out  along  another  nerve  hbi'c,  resulting  in  an  action.   An 

Lwample  of  this  is  the  involun- 
tary extension  of  the  arm  to 
l»rcak  a  I'all.  ( 'i )  An  impres- 
sion is  received,  acted  ui)on  by 
involunlai-y  retlex,  and  then, 
after  the  action,  telephoned  to 
llie  brain,  as  shown  by  the  dia- 
gram. Tlie  action  proceeded 
from  the  spinal  cord,  but  tlie 
knowledge  of  it  went  to  the 
cerel)rum.  (o)  An  impression 
is  received  from  without,  tele- 
plioiicd  thniugh  the  spinal  coi'd 
i()  the  l)rain,  inuler  a  delil)erate 
fiat  of  the  will,  so  that  through 
the  efferent  nerves  an  expression 
I'csnUs.  We  call  these  three 
k'inds  of  actions  Simple  Keflex, 
1  ii\(iluiiini'\'.  and  Yoluntai'v. 


Cut   Xo.  28.      (Smitli.) 


The  Localization  of  Functions  in 
the  Cerebrum. 

This  has  Ijccn  jirovcd  by 
>tiidy  and  e\])erinients.  There 
is  a  consensus  of  opinion  thai  tlic  iliiii  gi'ay  I'iiid  (d'  the  cortex 
is  definitely  specialized.  'l"wo  faci>  have  been  })ro\c(l :  ibc  higher 
an  animal  stands  in  the  gi'adc  of  iiilclligcnce  i\w  nioi'(>  nuinerous 
are  the  folds  and  convolutiojis  of  the  coricx  (ilicrc  art',  however, 
a  few  exceptions  to  this  I'ulc)  :  ihc  cerebral  funt-tions  have  been 
definitely  localized  akmg  ci'rlain  portions  of  the  coi'tex.  There 
are  sensoiy  and  motor  jierves.  that  is.  tliose  tiiat  minister  to  sen- 
sation and  those  that  minister  to  motion.  Some  of  the  efferent 
nerves  are  motor  and  some  are  not.  Some  of  the  motor  nerves 
arc  voluntary  and  some  are  involuniai-y.  Moi-eover  each  motor 
nerve  is  connected  witli  some  |»aiiieuhii'  muscle,  not  with  the 
muscles  in  general,  and  precisely  as  the  motor  nerves  are  each 


00 


KKI.Kilors   Kl)r(  AlloX 


III'  llicin  coiiiicchMl  willi  some  particular  muscles,  so  they  have 
ihcii- iiriiiiii  ill  (lilTci-fiil  ))arts  of  the  Itraiu.     CFiir. '3!). ) 


('i;t  Xo.   2'.).     Association   Fibrca  in   the  Ccrcbnil  JlcinispUcre. 
tSliafir   after   Mrynert.) 

Two  (liau'raiiis  of  (he  localizaiiou  of  these  moloi'   fiiiietions 
are  shown,  the  (Hic  showina-  tlic  locniizalidii  on  the  interior  sur- 


ClT  No.   ?,0.  ClT   No.   ."'.1. 

Localization    of    Crrrbral    I'mictioiis.       ( SrluKfrr    and    Horslrij.) 

face  of  the  eerehi-nin.  and  ihe  other  aloiiy  the  median  line  as  the 
corte.x  dips  down  inlo  iho  lieini>i)liei'es. 


A  STl  l)N    OK   l'S^(  ll()|J)GY 


(il 


Stream  of  Consciousness. 

ri'uJV'.-.-ur  Jaiiic.-.  llic  oi'iiiiiialor  oi'  iliu  iiio-l  >lrikiii<i'  (.'.\aiii- 
ple  that  Ave  have  to  e.\])hun  ineiital  workin(is.  likens  them  to 
successive  sets  or  waves  of  feelin,iis,  of  knowhHliic,  of  desires, 


Cl   T     .\. 


( !<iiiilh. ) 


of  deliberation  constantly  passin,a'  and  repassing.  On  the  surface 
of  the  stream  float  sticks  and  si  raws.  Sometimes  one  idea  is 
prominent,  sometimes  aimihi'i'.     ]S'o  one  idea  stands  alone.    The 


of 


e  ^ 


f  fc  «^  *»    ^       a^x4      N\  a  V  <J  « 


>1 


C'LT    Xo.    Xi.        (tililitll. 


tliought  is  always  complex.  Sensations  of  our  body,  memories 
of  distance,  feelings,  desires,  all  grow  into  one  general  thought 
of  the  moment.     One  can  stand  on  the  shore  and  fix  the  eve 


62  RELIGIOUS  EDUCA'lloX 

upon  a  particular  stick,  as  it  floats  along.  Tlial  represents  the 
thought  in  the  Focus  or  Centre  of  attention. 

So  in  the  evor-tlowing  stream,  tlie  mosl  slriking  thought  is 
the  hrightest  in  the  centre,  while  the  others  are  grouped  around 
it  in  the  fading  margin — other  sticks,  as  it  "were,  further  down 
the  stream.  'J^his  M(ir(j\n  or  Friiifje.  which  is  faint  at  (irst  and 
hazy,  is  liable  at  an_y  moment  to  be  seized  on  by  our  attention 
and  brought  inlo  the  centre.  Giving  attention  to  any  subject 
is  bringing  it  into  the  focus  of  our  attention  and  holding  it  there. 

Tico  great  laws  can  be  illustrated  by  this  idea.  (1)  The 
thoughts  that  are  present  in  this  ever-flowing  stream  lune  been 
c-auscd  l)y  ihe  thoughts  that  have  gDnc.  This  seem-  easy  to 
understand.  One  can  trace  back,  step  by  step,  eacli  thought 
from  the  present  one,  and  see  how  I'ach  in  ini-ii  has  Itcen  caused 
by  and  is  dependent  upon  its  predecessor.  (2)  But  the  second 
law  is  harder  to  understaiul  at  first.  It  is.  the  thoughts  that  arc 
coming  have  hovu  iidluence<l  by  the  tliduglds  that  ai-e  here. 
"What  I"  you  may  ask,  "do  you  mean  to  say  thai  tlioughts  yet 
uid)orn  arc  inlluenced  by  tlie  thoughts  I  am  now  thinking?" 
"h'cs.  in  a  way.  I)ecause  it  is  not  so  much  ihe  singh'  thought  as  a 
group  of  ideas.  It  is  states  of  mind  ]-atlici'  than  an  idea.  Why 
is  it  tliat  we  can  say,  starting  from  tlie  same  word.  ''Our  Father 
who  art  in  Heaven.''  or  "Father,  whatever  of  earthly  bliss  Thy 
sovereign  will  denies"?  AVhy  is  not  the  word  "Father"  followed 
by  the  same  sequence  of  words  in  every  instance?  It  is  like 
the  constellation  of  the  Great  Dipper,  where  the  stars  are 
always  in  the  same  relation  to  each  other,  or  like  the  mast  of  a 
ship,  which  is  visible  before  the  hull  comes  into  view.  So 
thoughts  are  below  the  threshold  of  consciousness  with  a  small 
portion  of  the  group  of  ideas  appearing  gradually  into  the  con- 
sciousness. As  Professor  Adams  puts  it:  "Other  ideas,  weak 
in  themselves,  owe  their  recall  to  the  influence  of  their  friends. 
The  masses  of  ideas  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  come  into 
consciousness,  or  are  driven  from  it,  in  a  body.  If  for  any 
reason  one  idea  belonging  to  a  mass  finds  its  way  into  conscious- 
ness, it  forthwith  drags  in  a  whole  mass  along  with  it.  This  is 
known  as  mediate  recall,  because  certain  ideas  are  recalled  by 
means  of,  or  througli  the  mediatio]i  of  other  ideas.     If  in  Sun- 


A  ^jTl'l)^    el     1'.^^  (  III  H.(XiY  li:5 

day  School  avc  use  the  word  Saijit  i'eler,  we  find  tliat  the  whole 
mass  of  ideas  connected  with  Saint  Peter's  life  and  character 
swaniis  inlo  Ihe  consciousness  of  the  older  pupils.  These  ideas 
are  raised  hy  mediate  recall,  the  words  Saint  I'etcr  being  the 
means." 

Jdines  (jives  four  clidraclers  to  this  consciousness:  (1) 
J'^vei'v  "state"  tends  to  he  a  part  of  personal  consciousness.  We 
know  that  the  thought  is  our  thought,  and  know  ourselves  as 
thinking  it.  (2)  Within  each  personal  consciousness  states  are 
always  elianging.  Xo  state  once  gone  can  be  recalled  and  be 
identical  with  what  it  w^as  before.  It  may  concern  itself  about 
the  same  object  or  the  same  quality,  or  the  same  species,  but  it 
is  not  the  same  state.  It  does  not  occur  in  the  brain  precisely 
as  it  was  before.  To  be  an  identical  sensation,  it  would  have 
to  occur  again  in  an  unmodilied  bi-ain,  which  is  a  physical  im- 
possibility. (3)  Each  personal  consciousness  is  successive,  con- 
tinuous. There  is  no  break  or  breach  or  interruption.  There 
is  no  time  when  we  are  not  thinking,  even  though  w^e  are  asleep 
and  seemingly  dreandess.  The  strt'am  of  consciousness,  at  any 
rate  in  the  Sub-conscious  Self,  is  continuously  going  on,  and 
all  times  in  our  lives  we  are  conscious  that  the  stream  of  our 
life-thouglil  has  been  continuous.  (4)  The  stream  of  conscious- 
ness is  always  interested  more  in  one  part  of  its  object  than  in 
another,  and  welcomes,  or  rejects,  or  chooses  all  the  wliile  it 
thinks.  The  phenomena  of  selected  attention  and  deliberation 
are  seen.  Accentuation  and  emphasis  are  noted  in  every  im- 
pression wo  have.  We  find  it  impossible  to  dispense  our  atten- 
tion impartially  over  a  nund)er  of  impressions. 

An  Illustration  of  the  Fringe. 

Each  mental  process  occupies  a  certain  time,  during  which 
it  wakes,  intensifies,  culminates,  and  wanes.  Let  the  horizontal 
line  of  your  figure  be  the  line  of  time,  and  the  three  curves,  be- 
ginning at  ],  2  and  3  respectively,  stand  for  the  mental  pro- 
cesses. The  process  for  1  has  not  yet  died  out,  and  the  process 
for  3  has  already  begun  when  the  thought  for  2  is  culminating. 

Each  apex  corresponds  to  the  focus  and  the  rising  and 
falling  curves  of  the  fringe.  It  is  somewhat  like  the  over-tones 
in  music,  for  they  are  not  separately  heard  by  the  car.  but  blend 


G4 


RELKilOUS  KJ)L"('.\  TIOX 


Ci.T  Xn.   .'U.     Tlic  Currcs  of  ThoiKjIit.      (James.) 


with  llic  rundaiiiental  note  and  sufTusi,'  and  alter  it.  It  really 
means  the  thonght  and  its  relations,  the  thought  being  the 
focus  and  the  relations  of  that  tliought  being  the  fringe.  Words 
in  everv  language,  for  example,  have  acquired,  b}^  long  associa- 
tion, a  mutual  re])ugnance  or  affiliation  to  each  other,  so  that  a 
woi'd  out  of  phice,  as  a  word  of  another  language  in  a  conversa- 
tion, gives  a  feeling  of  discord  and  repugnance.  Our  under- 
standing of  a  French  sentence  never  falls  so  low  that  we  are 
unaware  that  the  words  linguistically  belong  to  the  same  lan- 
guage. 

Thinking. 

Not  all  images  or  ideas  that  come  into  the  mind  need  be 
dated.  They  may  be  mere  ])ic1ures  of  an  object,  or  of  a  class 
or  of  a  (y])e  of  objects.  If  the  object  he  a  ]iiclni'e  of  an  indi- 
vidual thing  it  is  called  a  product  of  the  imagination.  If  it  be 
a  type  or  class,  we  say  it  belongs  to  a  concej^tion  or  is  a  '"Concept." 
We  may  call  both  ideas.  As  Professor  Adams  says:  "A  general 
statement  is,  in  fact,  a  rule  or  law  expressed  in  ordiiuiry  lan- 
guage. But  some  general  statements  ar(>  more  universally  true 
than  others.  Triangles  have  three  sides  is  a  statement  that  is 
always  true,  while  to  the  statement  dininkards  are  poor,  there 
ai'c  some  exceptions.  Yet  it  is  very  convenient  to  use  general 
statements,  even  if  they  are  not  true  in  every  case.  Tt  is  worth 
while  knowing  and  saying  that  drunkcuness  usually  ends  in 
poverty  and  degradation,  even  if  all  di'unkai-ds  do  not  reach 
these  lowest  depths.  So  valuable  are  geni'ral  statements,  that  it 
is  no  unfair  test  of  the  intellectual  standing  of  an  individual 
or  a  society  to  note  the  proportion  between  particular  and  gen- 
eral statements  in  conversation.  If  the  talk  is  all  about  ]iar- 
ticuhii- ])ersons  and  things,  and  es])ecially  if  it  is  full  of  persiuial 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  65 

pronouns,  it  is  not  of  ;i  high  land.  Thoughtful  people  are  never 
content  till  they  can  speak  in  general  terms;  their  conversation 
consists  in  stating  general  rules  and  examining  their  truth. 
The  knowledge  that  is  power  is  the  knowledge  of  laws,  not  of 
])arlii-ulnrs." 

Our  Education  or  Life  Experience — in  fact,  our  Environ- 
ment— tills  the  mind  with  a  vast  army  of  ideas,  and  in  one  sense 
Education  is  but  the  grouping  of  a  useful  type  of  ideas,  and  the 
lack  of  Education  is  having  failed  to  acquire  them.  A  certain 
definite  order  is  pursued  by  Nature  in  the  way  our  minds  group 
these  ideas,  so  to  say,  for  the  entree  of  certain  ideas  before  a 
definite  age.  We  shall  deal  with  this  order  under  stages  of 
mental  develojnnent. 

False,  crude,  fantastic  ideas  are  conveyed  by  too  early  and 
injudicious  teaching.  "Forcing"  a  child  is  dangerous,  not 
merely  to  the  health,  but  to  the  mind  as  well. 

When  Ideas  come  into  the  mind  they  are  associated.  We 
will  see  this  under  the  illustration  of  the  aj)ple  in  Appercep- 
tion. The  Stream  of  Consciousness  is  ever  flowing  on,  and 
every  wave  in  it  is,  in  some  way  or  other,  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  waves  just  passed;  and  it,  itself,  influences  the 
waves  that  follow.  These  ideas  seem  to  be  selected  according 
to  (1)  Similarity  and  Analogy,  where  the  mind  calls  upon  an 
idea  in  the  stream,  because  there  is  some  likeness,  or  repetition, 
or  analogy  in  it  to  something  in  the  thought  just  passing.  We 
flow  along,  rapidly  flitting  from  thought  to  thought ;  so  that  we 
can  frequently  trace  back  clear  connection  between  our  ideas. 
(2)  Contiguity,  where  the  mind  tells  us  that  the  objects  thought 
of  in  a  particular  thought  were  next  to  the  object  recalled  from 
a  previous  experience.  The  Alphabet  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
are  familiar  examples,  cited  here  by  James.  We  thus  build  up 
useful  systems  of  association  by  the  orderly  acquisition  of  new 
ideas,  and  readjustment  of  thoughts  already  acquired. 

As  an  illustration  of  thinking,  let  us  make  a  diagram  of  a 
small  Cross  Section  of  the  Brain,  and  let  each  dot  stand  for 
one  element  in  an  idea.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  small  child  has 
already  become  acquainted  with  a  large  gray  rubber  ball.  We 
now  introduce  him  to  a  small  red  apple.     The  thing  that  strikes 


06 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 


liis  eye  first  is  the  color,  then  the  shape,  and  as  he  relates  the  new 
to  the  old  (and  nothing  can  be  known  save  by  comparisons  with 
former  knowlcdo-c),  he  is  about  to  say  that  this  is  a  red  rubber 
])a]l.  The  size  does  not  bother  him,  because  he  merely  thinks  it 
is  a  small  red  rubber  ball.    Lines  of  association,  telephone  wires 


/Rubber     Ball 


fi  <    Q    U  »  -^  st"' <- t^       C\c       N<^>A/       "Id. 


Cut  No.  35.      (Smith.) 

as  it  were,  are  set  up  between  the  cells  containing  the  ideas  of 
redness  and  roundness  of  the  apple  and  the  cells  containing 
ideas  of  the  grayness  and  roundness  of  the  rubber  ball.     E 
cell  is  connected  with  every  other  cell,  and  so  he  proceeds  to  ; 
to  his  knowledge  the  slight  differences  in  shape  between 
a])])le  and  the  rubber  ball,  as  by  the  stem  and  lower  end  of 
apple;  the  new  knowledge  given  in  the  smell  as  compared  w 
the  smell  of  Ihc  rubber  ball;  the  smoothness  of  the  rubber  b 
as  compared  with  the  stickiness  of  the  apple;  the  incompre 
bility  of  the  apple,  as  compared  with  the  compressibility  of 
rubber  ball,  and  finally  the  taste  of  the  one  as  compared  w 


the 
the 
:ich 
uM 
uic 
the 
ili\ 
all. 
ssi- 
the 
ilh 


A  STUDY  OF   PSYCHOLOGY  67 

the  tut;le  ol'  the  oilier.  Comparing  it  with  the  other,  he  lirst 
sees  the  resemblances  (synthesizes),  then  he  sees  the  differences 
(analyzes),  and  finally  learns  by  this  comparison  that  an  apple 
is  different  from  a  rubber  ball.  In  the  same  way  he  might  learn 
about  an  orange,  and  compare  that  again  with  the  apple  and 
the  rubber  ball.  All  knowledge,  therefore,  comes  from  grafting 
the  unknown  to  the  known. 

Apperception. 

Gregory  explains  it  this  way:  "Knowledge  cannot  be  passed 
from  mind  to  mind  like  apples  from  one  basket  to  another,  but 
must  in  every  case  be  re-cognized,  re-thought  by  the  receiving 
mind.  All  telling,  explaining,  or  other  acts  of  so-called  teach- 
ing, are  useless  except  as  they  servo  to  excite  and  direct  the 
pupil's  voluntary  mental  powers.  The  teacher  is  a  sympathizing 
guide,  whose  familiarity  with  the  subjects  to  be  learned  enables 
him  to  direct  the  learner's  efforts,  to  save  him  from  the  waste 
of  time  and  strength,  or  needless  or  insuperable  difficulties,  and 
to  keep  him  from  mistaking  truth  for  error.  But  no  aid  of 
school  or  teacher  can  change  Nature's  modes  in  mind  work,  or 
take  from  the  learner  the  lordly  prerogative  and  need  for  know- 
ing for  himself.  The  eye  must  do  its  own  seeing,  the  ear  its 
own  hearing,  and  the  mind  its  own  thinking,  however  much  may 
be  done  to  furnish  objects  of  sight,  sounds  for  the  ear,  and  ideas 
for  the  intelligence." 

Roark  writes :  "It  is  only  classified  knowledge — that  is, 
knowledge  placed  in  its  real  relations — that  can  be  most  ef- 
fectively retained  and  produced  for  use.  Unclassified  knowledge 
is  almost  useless.  Some  minds  seem  to  be  mere  junk-shops  of 
knowledge,  filled  with  fragments  and  scraps  of  learning,  tumbled 
together  as  they  came,  with  no  orderliness  or  method  in  their 
arrangement.  Others  are  like  a  well-arranged,  well-kept  mu- 
seum, where  everything  is  properly  named  and  classified,  and 
where  everything  can  be  got  without  delav  and  with  small 
effort." 

Perhaps  the  clearest  explanation  of  all  is  given  by  Miss 
Slattery  in  her  well-known  illustration:  "One  winter  night  I 
hurried  around  the  corner  through  the  drifting  snow  into  the 
chapel,  where  the  warmth  and  light,  the   flowers  and   pretty 


G8  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

dresses  made  a  most  interesting  contrast  to  the  cold  and  dark- 
ness outside.  It  was  a  monthly  social,  and  after  an  hour  of 
conversation  and  refreshment  there  was  an  entertainment,  to 
which  I  failed  to  listen  except  now  and  then,  though  it  was  a 
good  one.  I  did  not  listen  because  I  had  learned  a  lesson  in 
psychology  that  evening  in  a  new  and  forceful  way,  and  I  could 
not  resist  thinking  about  it. 

"I  had  noticed  as  the  different  people  entered  the  room  how 
each  hesitated  a  moment  on  the  threshold  and  looked  about  him. 
Perhaps  he  nodded  to  one  or  another,  then,  entering,  sought 
some  interesting  group,  joined  it,  and  in  a  few  moments  became 
a  part  of  it,  sharing  its  laughter  and  fun.  Some  of  the  groups 
were  large,  others  of  two  or  three.  Some  stood  about  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  room,  and  others  took  chairs  and  withdrew  to  a  corner. 
Here  and  there  were  the  'wanderers'  drifting  about  from  group 
to  group,  spending  a  few  moments  with  each.  But  I  was  es- 
pecially interested  in  a  man  who  came  in  alone,  hesitated  quite 
a  long  time  at  the  open  door,  walked  about,  put  his  hands  in 
his  pockets  and  stood  quietly  observing  it  all.  When  I  thought 
of  him  again  half  an  hour  later  he  was  passing  through  the  hall 
and  went  out  the  side  door.     My  lesson  began. 

"The  room  was  no  longer  a  room,  but  the  human  brain  with 
its  mystical  'grayish  matter  and  cells'  of  which  we  speak  so 
easily  that  we  forget  the  marvel  of  it  all.  And  the  people  were 
no  longer  people,  but  Ideas  hesitating  at  the  threshold.  I  saw 
each  new  arrival  from  the  world  without  entering  the  brain. 
Here  was  an  Idea  coming  alone,  waiting  a  moment,  then  joining 
quickly  and  easily  the  group  in  the  centre,  soon  to  become  a  part 
of  it.  I  saw  another  Idea  join  itself  to  a  small  group  in  the 
farthest  corner,  and  a  third  wandering  about,  associating  with 
first  one  and  then  another  of  the  central  groups.  Yes,  and  I 
saw  a  fourth  enter,  stop  a  moment  beside  the  various  groups, 
hurrying  on  each  time,  until  when  I  looked  for  it,  lo,  it  had 
gone  through  some  side  door.  Why  had  it  gone  ?  For  the  very 
same  reason  that  the  man  left  the  chapel.  It  found  no  group  in 
which  it  belonged,  no  associates,  nothing  to  which  it  might  at- 
tach itself.    There  seemed  to  be  no  place  for  it,  and  it  went  out. 

"As  I  thought  about  it,  I  seemed  to  see  as  a  new  revelation 
the  old  law  of  'Association  of  Ideas'  with  which  I  had  been  so 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  69 

long  familiar — an  explanation  of  the  reason  why  children  seem- 
ing to  know,  and  even  to  repeat,  certain  facts  in  history, 
geography  or  Bible  study,  knew  nothing  about  them  two  days 
later.  The  fact  had  gone,  the  knowledge  poured  in  had  van- 
ished, largely  because  it  was  unconnected,  isolated  material  un- 
able to  find  any  group  with  which  to  associate  itself.  If  this 
be  true,  what  must  I  do  ?  The  answer  is  plain — attempt  to  teach 
in  such  a  way  that  the  new  Idea  which  I  present  shall  be  asso- 
ciated with  some  Idea  already  in  the  mind,  that  when  it  enters 
it  may  find  a  group  of  kindred  Ideas  ready  to  welcome  it." 

Apperception   Explained. 

This  is  rather  a  hard  name  for  a  simple  thing.  It  is  merely 
the  process  by  which  new  knowledge  is  introduced  into  the  mind 
by  connecting  it  with  that  already  there.  An  impression  no 
sooner  enters  our  Consciousness  than  it  is  drafted  off  in  various 
directions,  making  associations  with  former  knowledge  and  im- 
pressions already  there.  If  I  mention  the  word  "Apple,"  it 
will  recall  to  your  mind  the  taste,  appearance,  and  form,  either 
of  all  apples  in  general,  or  of  some  particular  apple  that  you 
remember.  You  can  only  understand  what  I  mean  by  the  term 
"Apple"'  by  having  this  previous  knowledge.  If  you  have  never 
experienced  an  apple,  I  can  only  make  myself  understood  by 
comparing  the  apple  to  some  fruit  you  have  known  about.  This 
process  of  joining  the  new  to  the  old  is  called  Apperception. 
It  is  really  the  point  of  proceeding  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known. In  later  life,  the  tendency  to  leave  the  old  impressions 
undisturbed  by  new  ideas  leads  to  what  we  call  "Old  Fogyism," 
or  Conservatism.  (The  chapter  in  James'  book,  dealing  with 
this  subject,  is  most  delightful  reading.) 

We  might  put  it  in  another  way  by  saying  that  a  new  idea 
corresponds  to  a  new  person  coming  into  a  room  unacquainted 
with  anyone  there.  Step  by  step,  he  is  introduced  to  this  one 
and  to  the  next  and  to  the  third,  until  he  has  met  everyone 
there.  When  he  is  fully  introduced  to  everyone,  he  is  known 
by  everyone.  He  is  the  new  idea  received  by  and  amalgamated 
with  the  old  ideas  already  present.  This  process  of  Apperception 
really  means  the  association  of  ideas 


70  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

Realizing  an  Idea. 

As  Professor  Adams  says :  "We  may  be  said  to  realize  an 
idea  when  we  give  it  our  full  attention,  and  let  it  develop  its 
full  meaning,  and  exercise  its  full  force  upon  us.  Some  ideas 
realize  themselves  within  the  mind  itself:  they  exhaust  them- 
selves by  becoming  distinct  and  vivid:  they  require  nothing 
further.  If  we  have  a  clear  and  vivid  idea  of  red,  for  example, 
wc  are  satisfied,  we  ask  no  more;  the  idea  leads  to  nothing  be- 
yond itself.  But  if  the  idea  of  an  action  becomes  vivid  in  the 
mind,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  that  idea  to  pass  over  into 
action.  If  we  think  earnestly  about  a  certain  action,  we  find 
ourselves  impelled  to  perform  that  action.  If  you  make  a  clear 
picture  in  your  mind  of  yourself  performing  some  action,  you 
will  find  that  the  longer  you  dwell  on  this  picture  the  stronger 
becomes  your  inclination  to  perform  the  action,  and  if  you  retain 
the  picture  long  enough,  the  inclination  becomes  practically  irre- 
sistible. This  fact  explains  whatever  is  genuine  in  those  parlor 
tricks  generally  known  as  Thought-reading. 

"To  the  teacher  the  moral  application  is  obvious.  Tempta- 
tion really  consists  in  the  effect  of  an  idea  to  realize  itself.  If 
the  idea  is  evil,  then  the  temptation  is  to  evil;  but  the  teacher 
ought  to  remember  that  the  same  force  may  be  used  towards 
good.  We  may  be  tempted  to  good  as  well  as  to  evil.  The 
teacher's  fight  must  be  to  put  good  ideas  into  the  mind,  and  keep 
them  there;  he  must  be  concerned  more  with  good  ideas  than 
with  evil  ones.  The  moment  the  teacher  speaks  of  an  evil  idea, 
he  increases  its  presentative  activity,  and  thus,  to  some  extent, 
aids  it  to  realize  itself.  We  must  fight  evil  indirectly  by  sup- 
plying ideas  of  good.  This  is  the  teaching  of  S.  Paul  when  he 
says,  'All  uncleanness  or  covetousness,  let  it  not  be  once  named 
among  you.'  We  must  nurture  the  mind  with  ideas  of  good, 
and  starve  it  in  respect  of  ideas  of  evil. 

"Not  only  must  a  place  be  prepared  for  the  new  idea,  but, 
if  possible  the  need  for  it  should  be  made  prominent.  Ad- 
vertisers understand  this  principle.  Some  years  ago  the  whole 
country  was  flooded  with  large  placards  on  which  was  printed 
nothing  but  a  large  Oxford  frame  in  black.  A  week  or  two 
later  the  placards  were  replaced  by  others  in  which  the  words 
were  printed  within  the  frame :    'Watch  this  frame.'     In  due 


A  STUDY  OF  rSYCHOLOGY  71 

course,  a  third  placard  appeared,  containing  a  simple  advertise- 
ment that  would,  under  other  circumstances,  have  attracted 
little  attention,  hut  that,  thanks  to  this  careful  preparation,  had 
a  wonderful  ell'ect.' ' 

Dr.  Scripture  of  Columhia  University  states  the  same  truth 
even  more  forcibly:  "Every  idea  of  a  movement  hrings  an  im- 
pulse to  movement.  This  is  especially  prominent  in  the  many 
iiitlividuals  who  cannot  keep  a  secret.  The  very  reading  and 
thinking  about  crimes  and  scandalous  action  produces  a  ten- 
dency to  commit  them.  In  some  persons  this  influence  is  quite 
irresistible.  As  soon  as  one  bomb-thrower  attacks  a  rich  banker, 
everybody  knows  that  in  a  week  half  a  dozen  others  will  do  the 
same.  No  sooner  does  one  person  commit  suicide  in  such  a  way 
that  it  is  strikingly  described  in  the  newspapers,  than  a  dozen 
others  go  and  do  likewise." 

Stages  of  Thinking. 

When  sensations  come  into  the  mind  through  perception, 
they  go  through  the  several  processes  of  Attention,  Analysis,  and 
Association.  We  can  represent  this  process  by  the  four  di- 
visions of  thought.  (1)  Setise  perception. — This  is  the  first 
stage  of  thinking  and  cannot  properly  be  called  "thinking,"  for, 
though  our  minds  are  acting,  it  concerns  sensation  practically 
sub-conscious  and  never  entered  into  real  consciousness.  When, 
however  late,  the  small  child  realizes  its  sensations,  it  at  first 
does  not  combine  them.  Each  sensation  stands  alone  and  un- 
related. )2)  Understanding  analyzes  and  combines  sensations 
(Synthesis),  and  secures  Perceptions.  Thus,  I  see  a  pear.  Its 
weight  and  smoothness  reach  my  mind  through  the  touch;  its 
size,  color,  etc.,  enter  my  mind  through  the  avenue  of  the  eye; 
and  its  taste  through  the  mouth;  and  so  I  receive  my  idea  of  a 
pear  as  one  of  the  fruits  by  the -combination  of  the  multitude  of 
single  sensations.  We  gather  the  general  idea  with  each  kind  of 
sensations  acting  from  a  particular  point.  Thus  no  reader  sees 
all  the  words  on  the  page,  nor  more  than  one-half  of  the  letters 
in  these  words.  (3)  The  next  stage  of  thought  is  Reflection, 
combining  Analysis  and  Synthesis.  It  reaches  principles  and 
laws.  It  is  the  clearing-up  time,  the  Aufhldrung  of  the  Ger- 
mans.    It  asks,  "How  ?"  and  "Why  ?"     (4)  The  highest  stage  of 


72  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

reason  is  Philosophic  Insight,  which  sees  the  cause  of  all  things, 
namely,  God.  It  sees  the  world  as  explained  by  the  principle  of 
Absolute  Person.  Eeflection  does  not  begin  much  before 
adolescence,  tliat  is  twelve  or  thirteen,  while  Philosophic  Insight 
is  seen  about  seventeen  or  eighteen. 

It  may  be  well  for  a  moment  to  see  how  tliis  explains  the 
diverse  forms  of  belief  and  religion  existing:  {a)  The  lowest 
stage  of  thought  is  Atheistic  or  Atomistic,  finding  each  thing 
sufficient  for  itself.  (&)  The  stage  of  Understanding  is  Pan- 
theistic, finding  everything  finite  and  relative ;  an  unknown  and 
unknowable  force.  Thus,  Buddhism  and  Brahmanism  are  re- 
lated to  the  Understanding,  (c)  Reason  is  Theistic;  and  Chris- 
tianity is  essentially  the  Religion  of  Reason.  It  teaches  by 
Authority  the  view-of-the-world  that  Reason  thinks. 

Professor  Pratt,  in  his  Psychology  of  Religious  Be- 
lief, states :  "This  tendency,  seen  in  so  many  children,  to  reason 
back  to  a  first  cause  is  certainly  innate,  and  suggests  the  ques- 
tion whether  or  not  the  reason  alone,  without  any  aid  from 
authority  or  external  suggestion,  would  be  enough  to  bring  about 
belief  in  God.  On  the  whole,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  in 
some  cases  at  least,  the  reason  and  imagination,  if  left  entirely 
to  themselves  and  without  external  help,  would  build  up  a  belief 
in  some  kind  of  a  God.  There  are  certain  anti-religious  beliefs 
which  take  particularly  strong  hold  on  the  popular  imagination 
and  with  which  critical  thought  can  very  well  deal.  The  best 
example  of  these  is,  of  course,  materialism,  and  the  service  which 
reason  has  rendered  to  religion  in  warding  off  its  attack  is  of 
great  importance.  Thanks  to  it,  materialism  scarcely  poses 
any  longer  as  a  serious  attempt  completely  to  explain  the  uni- 
verse. Haeckel  stands  almost  alone  in  defending  it.  His  cour- 
age is  as  admirable  as  that  of  the  boy  who  'stood  on  the  burning 
deck,  whence  all  but  him  had  fled.'  So  much  for  belief  in  gen- 
eral. 

"Now  the  three  phases  or  kinds  of  belief  which  we  have  been 
discussing  are  particularly  marked  in  the  history  of  man's  faith 
in  the  divine.  Religious  belief  may  be  mere  primitive  credulity 
which  accepts  as  truly  divine  whatever  is  presented  to  it  as 
such :  it  may  be  based  on  reasoning  of  various  sorts ;  or  it  may  be 
due  to  a  need  of  the  organism,  or  to  an  emotional  experience  or 


A  STL  J)Y   OF   i'iSVCUOLOGY  73 

intuition — an  unreasoned  idea  springing  from  the  background 
and  bearing  with  it  an  irresistible  force  of  emotional  conviction. 
As  these  three  types  of  religious  belief  are  to  form  the  central 
part  of  our  entire  discussion,  I  shall  refer  to  them  respectively 
as  the  Religion  of  Primitive  Credulity,  the  Religion  of  Thought, 
or  of  Understanding,  and  the  Religion  of  Feeling." 

A  strong  testimony  to  the  reasonableness  of  religion  is 
borne  by  Professor  James  in  his  new  volume  on  Pragmatism. 
"I  firmly  disbelieve,  myself,  that  our  human  experience  is  the 
highest  form  of  experience  extant  in  the  universe.  I  believe 
rather  that  we  stand  in  much  the  same  relation  to  the  whole  of 
the  universe  as  our  canine  and  feline  pets  do  to  the  whole  of 
human  life.  They  inhabit  our  drawing-rooms  and  libraries. 
They  take  part  in  scenes  of  whose  significance  they  have  no 
inkling.  They  arc  merely  tangent  to  curves  of  history,  the  be- 
ginnings and  ends  and  forms  of  which  pass  wholly  beyond  their 
ken.  So  we  are  tangent  to  the  wider  life  of  things.  But  just 
as  many  of  the  dogs'  and  cats'  ideals  coincide  with  our  ideals, 
and  the  dogs  and  cats  have  daily  living  proof  of  the  fact,  so  we 
may  well  believe,  on  the  proofs  that  religious  experience  affords, 
that  higher  powers  exist  and  are  at  work  to  save  the  world  on 
ideal  lines  similar  to  our  own." 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  is  Self- Activity,  and  how  is  it  manifested  throughout  all  life? 

2.  What  wonderful  evolution  in  unitary  assemblage  of  cell  life  does 

man  show? 

3.  Draw  the  Nervous  System  of  Man  and  Explain. 

4.  Describe  the  Brain  and  its  work.    Wliat  is  Localization? 

5.  Give  James'  Idea  of  The  Stream  of  Consciousness.  Explain  "Focus," 

"^Margin,"  etc. 

6.  Give  the  Stages  of  Tliinking,  and  illustrate  each  concretely. 

7.  Why    does    a    landscape    suggest   one    thing   to   one    observer,    and 

something  wholly  different  to  another? 

8.  A  man  receives  no  new  ideas  after  the  age  of  thirty.     Discuss  What 

has  Apperception  to  do  with  your  teaching? 


CHAPTER  V. 
A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  (Continued). 

Attention — M  emory — Will. 
SUGGESTED  READINGS. 
Attention  and  Interest: 

•Talks  to  Teachers.     James,     pp.  91-116. 

*The  Relation  op  Interest  to  Will,  3rd  Herbart  Yr.   Bk.     Dcivcy. 

•New   Psychology.     Oordy.     Index,   Attention. 

How  to  Conduct  the  Recitation.     McMurray.     pp.  11-12. 

The  School  and  Society.     Dewey,     p.  54. 

•Up  Through  Childhood.     Hubbell.     pp.  155-1G3. 

Memory: 

♦New   rsYCHOLOGY.     Oordy.     Index. 

Sub-Conscious  Self: 

Social   Law.     Joticfi.     Index. 

rsYCiiOLOOY.     2    Vols.     JamcH.     Index. 

•Religion  and  Medicine.     Wnrrestcr.     Index. 

•Hypnotic  Therapeutics.     Quackcnbo.s. 

The  Porch  of  Mind.     Schofleld. 

Mental  Treatment  of  Nervous  Disorders.     Du  Bois. 

Will: 

Talks  to  Teachers.     James,     pp.  109-184. 

Character  Building.     Colcr.     pp.  00-70. 

New  Psychology.     Oordy.     Index. 

Up  Through  Childhood.     HubhcU.     pp.  204-251. 

Attention  and   Interest. 

Attention  is  fixing  the  mind  upon  a  particular  idea,  bring- 
ing that  idea  or  thought  into  the  centre  or  focus  of  the  mind, 
and  then  persistently  holding  it  there.  There  arc  two  kinds  of 
attention,  (a)  Involuntary,  and  (h)  Voluntary;  or  Attention 
that  is  spontaneous  and  without  effort,  and  that  with  effort; 
the  one  passive,  the  other  active.  The  attention  with  effort  is 
the  process  of  fixing  the  mind,  with  deliberation,  on  objects 
uninteresting  or  less  interesting  in  themselves.  Voluntary  at- 
tention cannot  be  continuously  sustained.     It  comes  in  beats, 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  75 

and  each  beat,  each  cfTort,  expends  itself  in  the  single  act  and 
must  be  renewed  by  a  deliberate  pulling  of  our  minds  back  again. 
Interest  is  the  outcome  of  Attention.  It  is  the  Self-activity  of 
our  Impulses  seeking  to  find  satisfactory  outlet  for  their  desires 
and  yearnings. 

Attention  is  the  basis  of  all  Education.  As  Gordy  puts  it, 
"Without  attention  there  is  no  sensation;  the  sensation  of  which 
we  are  conscious  depends  upon  attention."  Professor  Car- 
penter gives  some  remarkable  examples  of  this.  Before  the  in- 
troduction of  chloroform,  patients  sometimes  went  through  se- 
vere operations  without  giving  any  sign  of  pain,  and  afterwards 
declared  that  they  felt  none,  having  concentrated  their  thoughts 
upon  some  subject,  by  a  powerful  effort  of  abstraction  which  held 
them  engaged  throughout.  WJiat  ive  perceive  depends  upon  at- 
tention. Let  a  botanist  and  geologist  take  the  same  walk,  and 
the  botanist  will  see  the  flowers,  while  the  geologist  notes  the 
rocks,  because  each  sees  what  he  attends  to.  What  we  remember 
depends  upon  attention.  Most  of  our  past  lies  in  a  barren 
region  of  forget  fulness,  swallowed  up  in  oblivion.  Here  and 
there  are  little  green  spots  of  memory  like  oases  in  the  desert  of 
the  past.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  events  of  youth 
are  so  well  remembered  in  later  years,  for  in  the  far-off  happy 
time  when  our  hearts  were  light  and  our  minds  were  free, 
trivial  events  received  attention  sufficient  to  stamp  them  on  our 
memories  forever.  What  we  recall  depends  upon  attention.  All 
recalling  is  remembering,  but  all  remembering  is  not  recalling. 
Recalling  is  remembering  by  an  effort  of  the  will.  Eecalling  a 
friend's  name,  which  has  slipped  the  memory,  by  an  effort  of 
attention  is  this  kind  of  remembering.  What  reasoning  we  do 
depends  upon  attention,  and  very  often  great  truths  have  been 
evolved  by  simple  reasoning.  What  we  feel  depends  upon  atten- 
tion. Frequently  the  most  important  and  pathetic  statements 
may  be  only  half  perceived  and  their  serious  import  often  unfelt, 
because  sufficient  attention  has  not  been  directed  to  them.  What 
we  will  to  do  depends  upon  attention,  and  attention  is  so  im- 
portant that  practically  to  Will  is  merely  to  pay  attention,  and, 
if  we  pay  attention  to  an  act  steadily  and  persistently,  we  are 
bound  to  do  that  act. 

All  this  shows  how  important  attention  is  in  life.     The 


76  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

chief  difference  between  the  Educated  and  the  Uneducated  man 
is  the  capacity  of  the  first  for  close,  continuous,  and  concentrated 
attention.  Newton  thought  that  the  sole  difference  between 
himself  and  ordinary  men  consisted  in  his  greater  power  of 
attention.     This  probably,  however,  overdraws  it. 

How  can  we  train  attention?  Precisely  as  we  cultivate 
other  powers,  by  forcing  ourselves  to  attend.  The  rules  for 
gaining  and  holding  attention,  both  for  ourselves  and  for  our 
pupils,  will  be  considered  more  fully  in  Chapter  XV, 

Types  of  Attention. 

There  is  a  native  difference  or  variety  among  individuals  in 
the  concentrativeness  of  their  attention;  in  other  words,  in  the 
intensity  and  scope  of  their  field  of  consciousness.  It  is  un- 
likely, thinks  James,  that  those  who  lack  it  can  gain  it  to  any 
extent.  It  is  probably  a  fixed  characteristic.  Both  mind-wan- 
dering, and  the  rapt-attention  class  are  types  that  remain. 
However,  it  is  the  total  mental  condition  that  counts  in  life,  not 
one  side  of  it. 

Memory. 

Miss  Slattery  defines  the  word  Memory  to  be  as  follows: 
"Memory  is  the  act  of  the  mind  by  which  it  retains  and  repro- 
duces ideas  which  it  has  gained.  Every  act  of  memory  really 
includes  three  acts.  First,  the  mind  takes  hold  of  an  idea;  this 
is  called  apprehension ;  then  the  idea  is  kept  hidden  away  in  the 
mind,  which  is  retention;  finally  it  is  brought  back  when  de- 
sired, and  this  is  reproduction.  Have  you  ever  used  a  carbon 
paper  and  lead-pencil  in  making  copies  ?  If  you  have,  you  know 
tlie  liarder  you  press  on  it,  the  deeper  impression  and  clearer 
reproduction  you  get.  In  some  measure  this  is  true  when  you 
write  upon  the  minds  of  children.  There  is  this  difference, 
however :  carbon  paper  is  made  very  much  alike ;  it  is  passive. 
But  the  brain  material  of  these  boys  and  girls  of  ours  is  en- 
tirely unlike,  and  it  reacts.  The  thing  which  will  make  a  deep 
impression,  be  retained  and  reproduced  clearly  by  the  child 
with  excellent  memory,  meets  a  different  fate  with  the  faithful 
plodder  who  takes  in  slowh',  requires  endless  repetition,  but  in 
the  end  retains,  and  reproduces  slowly  and  painfully.  It  meets 
still  a  different  fate  with  the  really  dull  child,  or  with  the  child 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  77 

who  takes  in  quickly,  reproduces  easily,  but  has  no  power  of 
retention,  and  cannot  tell  to-morrow  what  he  seemed  to  know 
to-day.  As  we  have  seen  in  our  previous  study,  to  work  to  the 
greatest  advantage,  we  must  know  the  children."  White  defines 
memory  as  "the  power  of  the  soul  to  represent  and  re-know  ob- 
jects previously  known  or  experienced."  There  are  three  ele- 
ments in  this  definition,  the  retaining  of  that  which  has  passed 
through  the  mind,  the  reproduction  of  it,  and  the  recognition 
of  it.  Consciousness  has  to  do  with  the  present,  memory  with 
the  past.  Without  consciousness  we  should  have  no  "to-day," 
without  memory,  no  "yesterday."  Locke  said  that  "without 
memory  man  is  a  perpetual  infant." 

Memory  is  of  two  kinds,  verbal  and  logical,  according  as 
that  which  is  recalled  is  in  the  exact  words  or  in  the  association 
of  ideas.  An  accurate  verbal  memory  is  often-times  associated 
with  inferior  mentality,  and  is  not  the  type  to  be  cultivated 
with  the  greatest  assiduity. 

Memory  is  due  to  attention.  It  is  not  in  any  way  a  faculty. 
Memory  is  due  to  the  fact  that  our  brains  are  wax  to  receive 
and  marble  to  retain.  Names,  dates,  and  what-not  leave  their 
impressions  on  our  brain  cells,  become  inter-related,  correlated, 
welded  together,  and  are  indelibly  retained.  Practically  nothing 
is  totally  forgotten.  Professor  Ebbinghaus  has  proved  that  the 
process  of  forgetting  is  vastly  more  rapid  at  first  than  later. 
Xo  matter  how  long  ago  we  have  learned  a  poem,  and  no  matter 
how  complete  our  inability  to  reproduce  it  now  may  be,  yet  the 
first  learning  will  still  show  its  lingering  effects  in  the  abridg- 
ment of  time  required  for  learning  it  over  again.  Things  which 
we  are  quite  unable  to  definitely  recall  have  nevertheless  im- 
pressed themselves  in  some  way  upon  the  structure  of  the  mind. 
We  are  different  for  having  once  learned  them.  Our  conclusions 
from  certain  premises  are  probably  not  just  what  they  would  be 
if  those  modifications  of  the  brain  cells  were  not.  The  very  fact 
that  when  we  re-learn,  we  recognize  that  we  have  known  the  fact 
before,  shows  that  it  has  not  been  totally  forgotten. 

Memory  depends  upon  five  factors :  (1)  Attention,  which  in 
turn  depends  upon  (a)  our  Personal  Interest,  and  (h)  our 
Paying  Attention,  (2)  Retention,  (3)  Recall,  (4)  Recognition, 


78  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

and  (5)  Localization.    Any  one  of  these  may  fail,  althougli  the 
failure  in  most  cases  depends  upon  the  Eeeall. 

A — ttcntion, 

E — etention, 

E— ecall, 

E — ecognition, 

L — oealization. 
Definite  Attention  may  be  lacking  on  the  part  of  the  learner, 
and  the  memory  in  itself  may  be  weak,  but  generally  the  trouble 
has  been  that  we  have  not  thought  enough  about  the  subject,  have 
not  formed  enough  connections,  have  not  made  a  good  associa- 
tion of  ideas,  have  not  really  woven  the  unknown  to  the  known, 
and  so  cannot  rapidly  Recall.  Becognition  fails  in  a  few  cases, 
thougli  rarely,  and  when  it  does  it  is  generally  due  to  some  form 
of  disease,  known  as  Amnesia.  In  such  cases  a  person  may  see 
a  knife  and  not  recognize  it,  or  see  a  word  and  not  know  it,  or 
hear  a  word  and  not  interpret  it,  or  finally  we  can  conceive  of 
a  man  with  tlie  power  to  reproduce  and  re-know  past  experiences, 
but  without  the  power  to  locate  them.  They  are  all  in  the  past, 
but  where  is  not  recalled. 

An  example  of  recalling: — Suppose  a  lady  went  to  a  recep- 
tion held  in  Mrs.  Jones'  parlor.  Let  us  now  have  one  dot  to 
represent  a  great  many  brain  cells.  We  will  put  a  dot  (a)  for 
Mrs.  Jones'  parlor — that  takes  in  the  fittings  of  the  room,  the 
floor,  the  tapestries,  furniture,  and  people  in  general.  We  will 
put  another  dot  (h)  to  represent  the  corner  of  the  room  where 
the  piano  is  and  where  Mrs.  Smith  is  standing  as  a  guest.  The 
third  dot  (c)  will  represent  Mrs.  Jones  in  her  evening  attire, 
introducing  Mrs.  Smith  to  a  lady,  ]\rrs.  Brown.  We  will  put 
four  dots  for  pai'ticular  facts  concerning  Mrs.  Brown — (d)  for 
her  face;  (e)  for  her  high,  squeaky  voice;  (/)  for  her  name,  and 
(g)  for  her  evening  costume.     (See  Cut  35,  next  page.) 

The  next  day  Mrs.  Smith  meets  Mrs.  Brown  on  the  street, 
and  is  greeted  elTusively.  An  invitation  is  given  by  Mrs.  Brown 
for  Mrs.  Smith  to  call  on  her  At  Home  day,  Wednesday.  Mrs. 
Smith  cannot  recall  her  name.  There  is,  first  of  all,  the  same 
face,  represented  by  (d').  There  is  her  high,  squeaky  voice  (e'), 
but  a  different  costume  (g'),  which,  of  course,  does  not  resemble 
her  former  costume.     Her  name  (/)  cannot  be  recalled.     Mrs. 


A   STUDY  OF   PSYCHOLOGY 


79 


Sinltli  meditates,  '"Who  is  she?  Where  did  I  meet  her?  Where 
liavc  I  seen  that  face  and  heard  that  voice?"  And,  after  iimch 
thinking  as  they  part,  she  recalls  the  corner  of  the  room  (6), 
where  the  piano  stood,  and  Mrs.  Jones  (c),  introducing  her  to 
iijonio  lady  who  liad  a  hi^li  voice  and  the  same  face.     Suddenly 


Tnvt>.     Sn->ye   t>        p3-\>\«x- 


o 
Cut  No.  35.      (Smith.) 


Mrs.  Smith  recalls  that  it  struck  her  at  the  time  that  the  names 
were  very  similar,  that  is,  they  were  all  common  names.  She 
thinks,  "My  name  is  Smith.  My  hostess'  name  was  Jones.  Now 
what  other  names  were  there — Rohinson,  Brown,  Taylor,  etc. 
Oh,  I  have  it  now !     It  was — Brown." 

Thus  in  this  roundahout  way,  the  mind  went  from  the  face 
and  voice  (d')  and  (c'),  to  the  name  (/),  whereas  it  should  have 


80  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

gone  directly  to  the  Name,  and  would  have,  iC  the  Face,  Voice, 
and  Name  had  been  thought  about,  paid  attention  to,  and  prop- 
erly associated  at  the  introduction.  Thus  again  we  see  that 
memory  depends  upon  the  proper  association  of  ideas. 

Types  of  Memory. 

There  is  a  native  type,  or  quality,  of  rctentiveness  of  mem- 
ory, just  as  there  is  in  attention.  Feeble  memories,  desultory 
minds,  scatter-brains,  are  due  to  deficient  native  rctentiveness. 
There  can  only  be  improvement  of  our  memory,  or  rather  of  our 
memories,  for  special  systems  of  associated  things,  that  is  there 
are  really  faculties  of  memory.  Says  Leibniz :  "No  idea  leaves 
the  mind,  but  each  idea  may  become  invisible  for  a  time  or 
permanently." 

The  Sub-Conscious  Self. 

Much  of  the  Fringe  belongs  to  the  Sub-Conscious  or  Sub- 
limial  Self.  In  his  Social  Life  in  the  Spiritual  World, 
Professor  Jones  devotes  a  chapter  to  the  newly  discovered  ele- 
ment in  our  nature,  the  Sub-Conscious  Self,  that  Self  which  is 
so  much  below  the  threshold  of  consciousness.  If  we  were  to 
draw  a  truncated  cone  we  would  find  that  one-eighth  of  our  life 
is  conscious  and  seven-eighths  belongs  to  the  Sub-Conscious 
realm.  It  is  the  Sub-Conscious  Self  that  is  acted  upon  in  Sug- 
gestion, in  Hypnotism,  that  is  ever  active  in  our  dreams,  that  is 
permanent  in  certain  diseases  and  when  our  conscious  mental 
powers  have  been  weakened  by  the  final  sickness.  It  is  the  Self 
that  is  acted  upon  in  Mental  Healing,  in  IMental  Therapeutics,  in 
Christian  Science,  in  Divine  Healing,  in  New  Thought,  and 
to-day  in  the  so-called  Emmanuel  Church  movement  in  Boston. 

Du  Bois,  the  leading  French  neurologist  of  Paris,  in  his 
newly  translated  book.  The  Psychic  Treatment  of  Nervous 
Disorders,  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  probably  nine-tenths  of 
all  functional  disorders  are  mental,  rather  than  physical,  and 
can  be  cured  by  influencing  the  sul)-conscious  self.  Tliis  sub- 
ject is  a  study  by  itself,  but  a  few  facts  of  additional  interest 
should  be  here  given. 

Dr.  Pratt,  in  his  book  already  referred  to,  says:  "These 
things  are  in  the  background  or  fringe  region.  They  are  not 
neotic,  objective,  defined,  and  communicable,  but  subjective  and 


A  STUDY   OF  rSYCllUJ.()(JY 


81 


private.  As  soon  as  we  fix  attention  upon  them  and  thus  take 
thoin  out  of  the  fringe  region,  tliey  become  neotic  and  com- 
municable, but  not  till  then.  That  we  are  really  conscious  of 
them   l)of()re   fixing  our   ntlontion    upon   thorn — I.e.,   that   they 


() 

/  , A' 

Cut  No.   36.      {Smith  after  Jones.) 

"It  is  impossible  to  put  facts  of  the  'inner  life'  into  a  diagram,"  says 
Prof.  Jones.  "But  a  'pictoral  image'  may  possibly  suggest  the  idea  here  a 
little  better.  In  the  figure  (a)  shows  the  'peak'  of  consciousness.  Around  it 
(b)  are  the  'dying  peak'  and  the  'dawning  peak,'  i.e.,  the  one  which  has  just 
now  prevailed,  and  the  one  which  will  succeed  next.  The  thought  of  any 
moment  is  influenced  by  what  is  just  dying  out  and  by  what  is  just  coming 
in.  This  makes  the  'fringe'  around  the  peak.  Then  (c)  represents  the 
'threshold'  or  horizon  of  consciousness.  Submerged  below  this  line  there  lies 
(d)  the  vast  realm  of  the  sub-conscious,  which,  for  all  we  know,  borders  upon 
the  infinite  Life,  rises  out  of  it,  and  may  receive  'incursions'  from  it." 

belong  to  the  fringe  and  are  not  purely  physiological  and  un- 
conscious— is  shown  by  the  fact  that  we  notice  their  cessation. 
If  the  clock,  which  we  did  not  'hear,'  suddenly  stops,  we  feel 
that  something  has  happened ;  our  total  consciousness  undergoes 
a  change.  Thus,  while  still  in  the  fringe  region  and  while  as 
yet  unnoticed  and  unknown,  they  have  an  effect  upon  the  general 
tone  of  our  consciousness,  they  color  our  life — and  this  not  in  an 
intellectual  but  in  an  effective  way.  In  this  conscious  back- 
ground belong  also  the  fringes  which  weave  themselves  about 
our  clearest  ideas;  'feelings  of  tendency';  the  vague  meanings 
which  are  yet  no  meanings,  and  which  are  neither  ideas  nor 
feelings. 

"And  one  thing  more  may,  perhaps,  be  added :  namely,  that 


82  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

as  Professor  James  has  suggested,  this  region  seems  to  have 
another  environment  besides  the  conscious  one;  it  seems  to 
point  to  a  Beyond. 

"For  the  one  thesis  which  I  wish  to  defend,  the  one  conten- 
tion for  which  I  really  care,  is  that  the  whole  man  must  be 
trusted  as  against  any  small  portion  of  his  nature,  such  as 
reason  and  perception.  These  latter  should,  of  course,  be 
trusted,  but  they  should  have  no  monopoly  of  our  confidence. 
The  ideals  which  have  animated  and  guided  the  race,  the  senti- 
ments and  passions  which  do  us  the  most  honor,  the  impulses 
which  raise  us  above  the  brutes  and  which  have  been  the  motive 
forces  of  history,  the  intuitions  which  have  marked  out  the 
saviors  and  saints  and  the  heroes  of  our  earth,  have  not  come 
from  the  brightly  illuminated  center  of  consciousness,  have  not 
been  the  result  of  reason  and  of  logic,  but  have  sprung  from  the 
deeper  instinctive  regions  of  our  nature.  The  man  as  a  whole 
and  the  instinctive  origin  of  much  that  is  best  in  him  deserves 
more  consideration  than  it  has  sometimes  received.  For  the 
instinctive  part  of  our  nature,  in  part  conscious,  in  part  uncon- 
scious, is  ultimately  the  dominating  factor  in  our  lives  and  the 
source  of  most  of  our  real  ideals.  'There  is  in  us,'  says  Maeter- 
linck, 'above  the  reasoning  portion  of  our  reason,  a  whole  region 
answering  to  something  different,  which  is  preparing  for  the 
surprises  of  the  future,  which  is  awaiting  the  events  of  the  un- 
known. This  part  of  our  intelligence,  .  .  .'  .  in  times 
when,  so  to  speak,  we  knew  nothing  of  the  laws  of  nature,  came 
before  us,  went  ahead  of  our  imperfect  attainments,  and  made 
us  live,  morally,  socially,  and  sentimentally,  on  a  level  very  much 
superior  to  that  of  those  attaimnents.' " 

Cole  says:  "Every  act  of  perception  focuses  consciousness 
on  some  definite  object  which  seems  to  fill  the  thought,  but  it 
is  easy  to  show  that  this  object  in  consciousness  always  has  its 
fringe  or  margin.  In  our  field  of  vision  there  is  always  more 
than  we  know  we  see.  Objects  or  circumstances  which  do  not 
come  to  clear  consciousness  make  their  influence  felt  and  get  a 
standing,  though  their  presence  is  not  acknowledged.  The 
blueness  of  the  sky,  or  the  heavy  mist  of  the  day,  is  present  in 
the  background  of  our  consciousness  throughout  the  day,  and 
though  we  may  not  once  make  sky  or  mist  the  subject  of  conver- 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  83 

sation,  or  definite  object  of  thought,  it  will  contribute  to  our 
mood,  influence  our  decisions  and  be  a  factor  in  all  we  do  or 
think." 

Gordy  holds  sensations  exist  before  they  are  known.  "But 
although  knowledge  takes  its  rise  in  sensation,  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  the  first  experience  of  sensations  constitutes  the 
beginning  of  knowledge.  If  we  consider  what  knowledge  is,  we 
shall  see  that,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  mind  must  have 
sensations  before  it  knows  it  has  them.  I  do  not  mean  merely 
that  a  fact  must  exist  in  order  to  be  known.  That,  of  course, 
is  true  of  sensation,  but  more  than  that  is  true.  Sensations  not 
only  must  exist  in  order  to  be  known,  but  they  may  exist — and 
often  do — for  a  considerable  period  before  they  are  known ;  and 
1  think,  if  we  realize  what  knowledge  is,  we  shall  sec  that  in  the 
nature  of  tiie  case  this  must  be  so." 

C.  L.  Raymond  of  the  George  Washington  University  has 
just  published  another  book  on  the  Psychology  of  Inspika- 
Tiox.  In  it  he  writes :  "There  is  no  proof  that  hypnotism  does 
any  more  than  furnish  opportunity,  availing  itself  of  w^hich  the 
sub-conscious  can  exercise  its  influence  in  a  way  normal  to  itself, 
yet  not  ordinarily  observed  because  hidden  behind  the  activities 
of  consciousness.  The  germs  of  thought  from  which^  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  hypnotic  patient  are  developed  are  often  very 
elementary  in  character.  Subjects  possessing  no  oratorical  gifts, 
for  instance,  are  told  to  personate  some  famous  public  speaker, 
and  at  once  they  set  out,  and,  with  apparent  ease,  deliver  ad- 
dresses closely  resembling  not  only  in  method  but  phraseology 
some  speech  of  this  man  which  they  have  previously  heard  or 
read,  though  only  in  an  extremely  superficial  and  heedless  way. 
The  author  himself  knows  of  a  reasonably  authentic  instance, 
being  personally  acquainted  with  all  the  parties  concerned,  in 
which — though  in  the  presence,  indeed,  of  one  familiar  with  the 
Italian  language,  which  fact  may  have  influenced  the  result — 
a  man  who  knew  nothing  of  this  language,  when  hypnotized  by 
another,  who  also  knew  nothing  of  it,  was  made  to  sing,  with 
correct  Italian  words  and  pronunciation,  a  song  which  the  sub- 
ject had  heard  but  once,  and  this  years  before. 

"Tiiis  occult  action  of  the  mind,  of  which  we  are  speaking, 
is  not  confined,  however,  to  memory.     If  it  were,  its  results 


84  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

could  all  be  allied  to  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  recollection, 
of  which  it  would  merely  be  an  unusual  development.  Similar 
action  is  evident  in  connection  with  logical  and  mathematical 
processes,  and  even  with  those  involving  skill,  which  would  ap- 
pear, at  first  thought,  especially  dependent  upon  conscious  direc- 
tion. 

"The  fact  of  the  existence,  side  by  side,  of  mental  action 
both  sub-conscious  and  conscious  is  much  more  easy  to  prove 
than  most  of  us  are  aware.  How  often  have  we  heard  a  friend 
unconsciously  hum  or  even  sing  aloud  in  perfect  time  and  tune  a 
song,  while  his  conscious  energies  were  directed  toward  the  ac- 
complishment of  a  task  entirely  different  in  character !  We  are 
all  more  or  less  familiar,  too,  with  the  conditions  under  which 
a  conscious  action,  or  series  of  actions,  may  be  made  to  become 
unconscious.  Every  one  who  has  acquired  skill  in  any  depart- 
ment knows  that  it  is  a  result  of  practice  continued  until  the 
mind  has  become  enabled  to  superintend  a  large  number  of  de- 
tails without  having  any  of  them  clearly  in  consciousness." 

The  Will. 

Since  Character  is  conduct,  and  conduct  comes  from  willing, 
all  new  habits  being  primarily  formed  by  willing,  it  is  necessary 
to  examine  Will.  Will  is  used  in  two  senses.  (1)  All  our  ca- 
pacity for  active  life,  even  automatic  habits,  unconscious  in  na- 
ture, can  be  called  willing,  in  the  broadest  application.  (2)  In 
the  narrow  terminology,  it  refers  to  such  acts  as  cannot  be  in- 
attentively performed — that  is,  that  require  a  deliberative  fiat 
on  the  part  of  the  mind,  in  order  to  be  executed. 

All  thought  tends  to  become  an  act;  all  attention  tends  to 
eventuate  in  Willing,  in  a  motor  reaction,  that  is.  It  may  only 
be  an  alteration  of  the  heart-beats,  or  a  blush  or  a  sob  or 
what-not. 

It  may  be  the  outcome  of  a  single  idea,  or  the  result  of 
weighing  a  number  of  ideas;  a  contest  or  battle  of  motives,  the 
result  of  deliberation.  This  deliberation  results  in  a  choice, 
a  fiat,  a  decision.  There  are  two  sorts  of  nerves:  (a)  those  of 
inhibition  or  arrest,  that  stop  or  prevent  an  action;  and  (&) 
those  of  motor  action,  that  perform.  The  contest,  the  weigh- 
ing, is  the  balancing  of  ideas.     Hesitation  is  the  deadlock  of 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  85 

ideas.  It  may  result  in  action  through  Motor  nerves;  or  refrain- 
ing from  action,  through  the  nerves  of  Inhibition.  The  nerves 
are  very  delicate,  and  a  strong  idea  in  the  focus  may  become 
utterly  neutralized  by  faint  contradictory  ideas  coming  in  from 
the  margin,  and  replacing  the  focal  thought,  which,  if  retained, 
would  have  resulted  in  a  very  different  action.  Our  conduct, 
then,  is  the  result  of  the  compounding  of  our  impulsions  and 
inhibitions. 

In  Pratt's  Psychology  of  Keligious  Belief,  it  says: 
"The  will  itself,  or  conation,  as  distinct  from  the  other  psychical 
elements,  always  eludes  our  grasp.  The  truth  is,  if  you  look 
for  will  as  an  element,  you  can  never  find  it;  for  it  is  a  com- 
pound— the  most  inclusive  of  all  psychic  compounds.  It  is  a 
matter  of  the  succession  of  states  of  consciousness  and  is  not  to 
be  found  in  any  cross-section  of  the  stream.  You  can  never 
single  it  out  from  its  psychic  content,  as  you  can  feeling,  and 
say,  'This  is  pure  will.'  You  can  never  put  your  finger  on  it. 
It  is  no  more  a  given  matter  which  you  find  than  association  is. 
Will  and  association  occur;  they  are  not  given.  They  are  pro- 
cesses, not  elements.  To  include  will  in  an  enumeration  of  the 
elements  of  psychic  life  is  like  saying  the  competitors  in  a  race 
were  A,  B,  C,  and  swiftness;  or  like  speaking  of  the  circulatory 
system  as  containing  venous  blood,  arterial  blood,  and  circu- 
lation." 

Deliberation. 

"The  word  Deliberation  is  used  in  ordinary  speech  to  mean 
any  state  of  mind  in  which  some  topic  is  considered  attentively. 
It  then  means  little  more  than  a  state  of  attention.  In  a  more 
restricted  sense  it  describes  a  state  of  Will,  with  mental  choice 
between  one  or  more  possibilities  of  action.  In  such  cases  the 
state  of  mind  is  likely  to  include  diiierent  and  more  or  less  op- 
posed methods.  We  think  over  the  alternatives,  have  ideas 
favoring  this  or  the  other,  and  balance  the  Pros  and  Cons. 
From  the  inside,  it  is  the  presence  of  images  and  pictures,  plus 
emotions  of  doubt  and  uncertaint}'.  From  the  outside,  it  is  a 
state  of  hesitation  before  action.  The  termination  of  this  hesi- 
tation or  conflict  of  ideas  is  sometimes  marked  by  a  feeling  of 
decision  or  choice.     We  must  not  confuse  the  fact  of  decision 


86  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

with  the  feeling  of  decision.  The  fact  of  decision  means  that 
one  motive  has  conquered,  that  one  idea  or  act  has  prevailed, 
and  it  may  have  little  or  no  feeling  of  choice  accompanying  it. 
The  term  fiat  of  the  will  is  applied  to  a  feeling  which  may  be 
analyzed  as  a  sort  of,  Go  ahead,  let  the  act  occur.  The  feelings 
concerned  in  the  life  of  conduct  are,  in  the  main,  made  of  intel- 
lectual and  emotional  stuff.  The  only  ends  which  follow  imme- 
diately upon  our  willing,  seem  to  be  movements  of  our  own 
bodies.  Whatever  feelings  and  havings  we  may  will  to  get 
come  in  as  results  of  preliminary  movements,  which  we  make 
for  the  purpose.  The  only  direct  outward  effects  of  our  will 
are  bodily  movements." 

Deliberation,  Reflection,  and  Willing. 

Let  us  make  a  diagrammatic  scheme  to  illustrate  this  process. 

In  the  drawing  herewith,  let  us  suppose  that 

"y^:  the  reader  were  the  guest  of  a  lady  at  din- 

/'   I  *•.  ner.     The  menu  has  proceeded  to  the  des- 

,/'"        ;       "\  sert  course,  and  a  tidy  waitress  enters  the 

'■'''        , ■.:,...■.     'l..     rooms  with  a  tray  of  plates  containing  pieces 

of  cold  mince  pic. 
It  chances  to  be  that  you  have  been  afflicted  with  chronic 
dyspepsia,  and  that  the  physician  has  forbidden  your  eating  pie, 
and  especially  cold  mince  pie.  The  sensations  and  ideas  enter- 
ing the  mind  that  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  argument  under 
which  you  decide  whether  or  not  to  eat  that  particular  piece  of 
mince  pie,  we  will  call  the  indifferent  arguments,  and  number 
them  a'  b'  etc.,  in  the  drawing.  They  would  be  such  things  as 
the  sight  of  the  waitress,  the  tray,  the  pattern  of  the  plates,  the 
fork  beside  you,  with  which  to  consume  the  pie.  Your  first  im- 
pression, then,  would  probably  be  a  feeling:  "Oh,  here  comes 
pie,  mince  pie,  just  what  I  love."  "The  pie,  mince  pie,  just 
what  I  love,"  would  correspond  to  the  arguments  a,  b,  and  c  Pro, 
that  is,  the  arguments  in  behalf  of  the  act.  There  arise  at  once 
opposition  arguments,  that  we  will  call  a",  b",  and  c".  They 
would  be  such  as  "Yes,  but  the  Doctor  said  I  mustn't  eat  pie, 
and  especially  mince  pie,  and  especially  cold  mince  pie."  At 
once  some  other  arguments  Fro  enter  the  mind,  so  that  there 
ensues  a  mental  dialogue  about  as  follows :  "But  then  I  have  not 


A   STL'DY   OF   PSYC'IIOJ.OGY  87 

boon  sick  in  three  months,  and  ma}'!)©  it  won't  hurt  me.  Well, 
but  when  I  was  sick,  I  was  sick  in  bed  for  two  weeks  and  I  had 
the  doctor  every  day,  and  it  cost  me  $2  a  visit.  Oh !  but  this 
is  such  a  small  piece  of  mince  pie,  and  then  I  am  so  very  hungry. 
I  was  leaving  space  for  the  dessert,  and  you  know  I  cannot  be 
impolite  to  my  hostess,  and,  and,  and,"  to  a  prolonged  extent. 
"Yes,  but  when  I  was  sick,  I  was  very,  very  sick,  and  I  suffered 
so  terribly  that  I  resolved  that  I  would  never  again  take  the  risk 
of  eating  mince  pie,  and  most  of  my  suffering  has  been  caused 
by  mince  pie."  Meanwhile  your  mental  and  visible  eye  have  both 
been  centered  on  the  piece  of  pie.  Eemember  that  we  said  in  a 
previous  section  that  the  moment  one  looks  at  or  pays  attention 
to  the  idea  of  an  act,  there  is  a  tendency  for  that  act  to  realize 
itself.  Moreover,  the  situation  is  never  a  fair  one.  One  is  al- 
ways prejudiced,  and  when  prejudiced  the  tendency  invariably 
is,  even  when  one  strives  to  be  just,  to  minimize  the  arguments 
against  the  act  and  magnify  the  arguments  for  it.  In  fact, 
you  can  put  it  down  as  a  rule  that  if  the  arguments  seem  equal 
for  any  act  in  life,  the  thing  that  you  should  do  is  what  you  do 
not  want  to  do,  because  of  the  almost  certainty  of  a  biased  view 
of  the  arguments.  So  that,  gazing  at  the  pie,  you  presently  re- 
mark to  yourself,  a  remark  that  really  constitutes  the  act  of 
decision,  "Well,  anyhow  my  digestive  organs  are  my  own,  and 
it  is  nobody's  business  if  I  do  suffer.  I  will  take  the  risk." 
With  that  final  remark,  and  perhaps  a  mental  toss  of  the  head, 
you  look  away  from  the  arguments  Con  until  they  are  practically 
obliterated  from  the  mind,  and  you  focus  your  attention  on  the 
strength  of  the  arguments  Pro,  with  the  inevitable  result  that 
down  goes  the  mince  pie.     That  is  Willing. 

Types  of  Will. 

There  are  types  of  Will,  just  as  of  Attention.  They  are 
(a)  Precipitate,  and  (b) Obstructed.  The  former  type  is  seen 
in  the  maniac ;  the  latter  in  certain  melancholiacs,  where  perfect 
"abulia,"  or  inability  to  will  an  act,  is  present.  Eaces  differ  in 
types  of  Will.  The  Southern  races  are  impulsive;  the  North- 
ern, as  the  English,  are  repressive.  The  former  is  the  lowest 
type,  for  it  has  few  scruples,  and  acts  regardless  of  consequences. 
The  strongest  minds  will  weigh  consequences,  deliberate,  con- 


88  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

sider  jiros  and  cons.  The  Balky  Will  is  the  extreme  of  deadlock. 
The  balance  of  ideas  refuses  to  be  broken.  The  child  or  the 
horse  cannot  act,  however  hard  he  tries.  The  Will  refuses  to 
break  the  deliberation.  So  long  as  the  inhibiting  machinery  is 
active  the  child  finds  the  obstacle  insurmountable  and  im- 
passable. "Then  make  him  forget,  drop  the  matter  for  a  time, 
springing  it  suddenly  on  him  later  in  some  other  way,  before  he 
has  time  to  recognize  it,  and  likely  as  not  he  can  act.  Don't  try 
to  'break  his  Will.'  Better  break  his  neck  than  his  Will,"  says 
James. 

Allowance  must  be  made  in  the  case  of  those  children  whose 
wills  verge  toward  the  extreme  impulsive  type  or  toward  the 
extreme  pondering  type.  A  teacher  must  not  irritate  the  former 
by  forever  checking  their  natural  tendency  to  jump  at  actions 
or  the  latter  by  hurrying  them  on  to  what  seems  to  them  im- 
possibly hasty  decisions.  Too  vigorous  opposition  to  their  nat- 
ural bent  will  make  the  one  class  confused  and  sulky  and  the 
other  nervous  and  tearful.  We  must  bring  each  toward  the 
golden  mean  of  action  that  is  neither  rash  nor  tardy  by  sympa- 
thetic and  ingenious  treatment.  With  a  pupil  of  the  impulsive 
extreme,  get  him  to  agree  to  the  simple  rule  that  before  he  acts 
in  any  important  situation  he  is  to  write  on  a  bit  of  paper  what 
he  is  going  to  do  and  why  he  is  going  to  do  it. 

"When  in  great  doubt,  do  either  or  both,"  is  a  maxim  which 
these  pondering  children  are  often  quite  willing  to  follow,  and 
which  soon  improves  greatly  the  power  of  prompt  attention.  It 
should  be  their  guide  in  all  unimportant  decisions  and  is  not  a 
bad  rule  for  them  even  in  really  vital  questions. 

Just  as  there  are  two  types  of  Will,  there  are  tivo  types  of 
Inhibition — that  by  repression  or  negation  and  that  by  substi- 
tution. The  latter  is  the  one  to  select.  Eeplace  the  deadlock 
by  a  new  inhibiting  idea —  the  former  quickly  gives  up  and 
vanishes  from  the  field.  Action  is  better  than  repression.  "He 
whose  life  is  based  on  the  word  'No,'  is  in  an  inferior  position 
in  every  respect  to  what  he  would  be  if  the  love  of  truth  and 
magnanimity  possessed  him  from  the  outset."  Build  up  Char- 
acter by  a  positive,  not  by  a  negative.  Education. 

Thus  it  is  that  James  gives  us  the  rule  that  "Voluntary 
action  is,  at  all  times,  the  resultant  of  the  compounding  of  our 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  89 

iiiijnilsioiis  witli  our  inhibitions."  The  matter  of  training  the 
will  and  the  rules  for  doing  so  will  be  considered  by  us  in  a 
subsequent  eliaj)ter.  We  will  merely  say  here,  in  answer  to  the 
question  :  '*ln  what  does  a  moral  act  consist  when  reduced  to 
its  simplest  and  most  elementary  form,"  that  the  moral  act  con- 
sists in  the  effort  of  attention  by  Avhich  we  hold  fast  an  idea 
which  but  for  tliat  ell'ort  of  attention  would  be  driven  out  of 
the  mind  by  the  other  psychological  tendencies  that  are  there. 
"To  think  is  the  secret  of  will,  just  as  it  is  the  secret  of  memory." 
This  is  the  happy  way  in  which  it  is  expressed  by  James. 

The  Opposition  of  Knowing,  Feeling,  and  Willing. 

It  is  like  the  tiiree  angles  of  a  triangle — no  two  are  on  the 
top  at  the  same  time.  Therefore  we  cannot  Know  intensely, 
and  Feel  intensely  and  Will  intensely  at  the  same  time.  If 
the  feelings  are  uppermost,  the  intellect  and  will  are  in  abeyance. 
Mob  rule  is  an  example  of  this.  If  the  intellect  is  uppermost, 
the  head  has  gained  control  of  the  feelings,  and  the  emotions 
are  therefore  in  abeyance,  and  the  result  is  cold  intellectuality 
and  self-control.  When  we  will,  we  will  have  some  emotion 
and  some  intellect,  but  the  willing  is  the  uppermost  act.  That 
is  why  we  call  an  angry  man  mad,  because  his  knowing  powers 
have  become  disarranged.  When  Carpenter  was  lecturing  he 
forgot  his  pain,  because  pain  is  a  feeling,  and  when  he  was  lectur- 
ing he  was  exercising  his  intellect  very  vigorously.  The  expres- 
sion "wild  with  grief"  illustrates  the  same  law.  One  does  not 
make  much  progress  in  those  studies  where  the  interest  is  so  lit- 
tle that  we  have  to  put  forth  a  great  deal  of  effort  to  keep  our 
minds  on  them.  The  will  is  used  so  energetically  to  concentrate 
the  attention  that  there  is  little  energy  left  for  knowing.  So 
that  when  your  pupils  are  amused  they  learn  little,  because 
amusement,  a  feeling,  is  a  hindrance  to  that  concentration  of 
mind  that  is  study  or  knowing,  and  yet  there  is  a  certain  inter- 
dependence between  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing.  When  we 
feel  we  know,  and  when  we  know  we  feel.  Bodily  wishes  and 
pains,  all  feelings,  in  fact,  depend  upon  knowing. 

Emotion,  Intellect,  and  Will. 

Hack  Tuke's  classic  work  on  the  connection  of  mind  and 
body  divides  the  action  of  tlu;  mind  into  that  produced  l)y  intel- 


90  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

led,  emotion,  and  will ;  and  out  of  the  whole  numhor  of  special 
instances  given  we  find  that  36  per  cent,  are  due  to  the  intellect, 
56  per  cent,  to  the  emotions,  and  8  per  cent,  to  the  will.  He 
points  out  that  the  intellect  appears  to  influence  the  vascular 
tissues  most;  emotion  the  glands  and  organs,  specially  the 
heart;  and  the  will  the  so-called  voluntary  muscles.  Some  emo- 
tions, he  adds,  act  specially  on  definite  organs — as  grief  on  the 
lachrymal  glands;  some  in  certain  regions,  as  shown  in  the  skin 
of  the  face;  and  some  more  on  the  voluntary  muscles — as  wonder 
on  the  facial  muscles,  says  Dr.  Schofield. 

The  Face  the  Window  of  the   Mind. 

Speaking  of  the  direct  action  of  the  mind  with  most  of  the 
ordinary  functional  diseases,  Laycock  says:  "Study  well  the 
physiognomy  of  the  disease — that  is  to  say,  all  these  external 
characteristics  in  the  patient  that  reach  the  unaided  senses  and 
which  are  associated — associated,  I  would  point  out,  chiefly 
through  the  brain  cortex — with  morbid  states,  whether  they  be 
sounds  or  odors  or  visible  and  tangible  modifications  of  form, 
complexion,  expression,  and  modes  of  functional  activity,  taking 
cognizance  of  minute  modifications,  as  well  as  of  the  more  ob- 
vious, for  tliey  are  only  minute  in  a  popular  sense.  If  this  is 
done,  it  is  truly  as  'scientific'  a  inode  of  diagnosis  as  any  stetho- 
scopic  or  chemical  investigation.  Ko  doubt  some  persons  are 
more  tell-tale  physiognomically  than  others;  that  is,  there  is  in 
them  a  closer  and  more  constant  relationship  between  the  organic 
and  sensory  centers  in  the  cortex,  and  the  mental  and  motor 
centers  that  control  the  face  and  attitudes;  their  mental  reflexes 
are,  in  fact,  more  acute. 

"In  considering  these  close  sympathies  of  mind  and  body, 
we  are  reminded  here  of  an  interesting  point  lately  raised  as 
to  whether  the  mind  can  remain  undefiled  after  voluntary 
physical  immoralities.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  fact  of  evil 
thoughts  being  written  physically  upon  the  face  shows  that 
evil  deeds  are  written  psychically  upon  the  mind;  and,  indeed, 
every  consideration  of  the  close  interdependence  of  soul  and  body 
must  tend  to  drive  from  the  minds  of  serious  thinkers  this 
mischievous  philosophical  antinomianism,  which  has  lately  re- 
appeared in  Europe,  into  which  even  a  Maeterlinck,  so  great  in 


A  STUDY  OF  rSYCHOLOGY  91 

many  deparlnicnts  of  thought,  has  permitted  himself  to  be  be- 
guiled; and  wliich  teaches  that  the  soul  of  a  prostitute  or  of  a 
murderer  may  preserve  its  purity  in  the  midst  of  atrocious  bodily 
acts.  The  soul  may,  indeed,  remain  pure  while  most  hideous 
violences  arc  oll'ered  to  the  body ;  but  to  absolve  it  from  partici- 
pation in  voluntary  action  is  surely  a  misconception  of  every- 
thing." 

This  holds  even  more  surely  a  fact  when  we  consider  the 
effect  of  conscience  and  mind  upon  the  face  of  a  criminal  or 
hypocrite. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  Discuss  the  part  Attention  plays  in  life. 

2.  What  is  the  Educational  Advantage  of  depending,  so  far  as  may  be, 

on  Passive  Attention  ? 

3.  Why   is    the   teacher   who   has    to    secure    attention    by    command, 

wasteful  of  mental  forces? 

4.  Which,  among  the  devices  known  of  for  securing  voluntary  atten- 

tion, have  you  tried? 

5.  How  may  a  review  of  last  Sunday's  Lesson  be  made  to  help  llie 

present  Lesson  on  the  basis  of  Attention? 

6.  What   light   does   this    Chapter   throw   upon    the    common    Sunday 

School  practice  of  going  over,  year  after  year,  precisely  the  same 
lessons  ? 

7.  Discuss  Definitions  of  Memory. 

8.  On  what  five  points  does  it  depend?    Illustrate. 

9.  What  part  does  the  "Sub-conscious  Self"  play? 

10.  Discuss  Will. 

11.  Picture  and  illustrate  Deliberation. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

A  STUDY  OF   PSYCHOLOGY    (Continued). 

Instincts — Habit — Character. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Instincts: 

♦Talks  to  Tbaciieks.     James,     pp.  22-63. 

Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education.     Harria.     pp.  160-166. 

♦Briefer  Course.     James.      Index. 

♦New  I'STCHOLOGY.     Oordy.     pp.  188-200. 

♦Churchman's  Manual.     Butler,     p.   106. 

Psychology  of  Inspiration.     Raymond,     p.  78 — 

I'RiNciPLES  OF  Psychology.     Thomdikc.     pp.  27,  179 — 

Habit: 

Character  Building.     Coler.     p.  108. 
♦Tub  Foundations  of  Education.     Seelcy.     pp.  84-92. 
♦Talks  to  Teachers.     James,     pp.  64-79. 
♦Syllabus  to  Above.     Hcrvey. 

The  Self: 

♦Briefer  Course.     James.     Index. 
Instincts,  Native  and  Acquired. 

All  consciousness,  all  thoughts,  all  ideas  lead  to  action. 
No  sensation  or  impression  or  perception  is  received  that  does 
not  bear  results  in  action.  No  impression  without  expression. 
No  stimulus  (either  from  without — external;  or  from  within — 
purely  mental)  without  reaction.  This  action  may  be  negative, 
not  to  speak,  act,  etc.  The  return  act  helps  to  clinch  the  impres- 
sion, fix,  and  deepen  it;  and  so  the  act  comes  back  as  a  still 
further  impression.  Hence  in  education,  especially  in  training 
motives  and  ideals,  try  to  provide  for  a  reaction  or  expression. 
(See  section  on  Habit  and  Doing  under  The  Class.)  Our  educa- 
tion implies,  therefore,  the  acquisition  of  a  mass  of  tendencies, 
of  possibilities  of  reaction.  Every  reaction  is  either  native,  the 
outcome  of  Instinct;  or  acquired,  the  result  of  training  of  In- 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  93 

etincts,  the  substitution  or  alteration  of  native  Tendencies  to 
Reaction. 

Without  the  original  or  native  tendencies,  the  teacher  would 
have  no  hold  on  the  child  whatever.  "He  must  do  something 
before  you  can  get  your  purchase  on  him,  that  something  may  be 
good  or  bad.  A  bad  reaction  is  better  than  no  reaction  at  all ; 
for,  if  bad,  you  can  couple  it  with  consequences,  which  awaken 
him  to  its  badness."  A  child  that  is  so  dead  that  he  reacts  in 
no  way  is  beyond  the  preliminary  steps  of  education. 

Thorndike  says :  "Instincts,  as  now  commonly  defined,  in- 
clude reflexes  and  all  other  connections  or  tendencies  to  con- 
nections amongst  thoughts,  feelings,  and  acts  which  are  un- 
learned— are  in  us  apart  from  training  or  experience.  Anything 
that  we  do  without  having  to  learn  to  do  it,  in  brief,  is  an 
instinct.  Thus,  crying  when  pain  is  felt,  starting  at  a  sudden 
noise,  feeling  fear  at  large,  strange,  moving  objects  seen  in  the 
dark,  feeling  anger  when  food  is  snatched  away  from  one  and 
laughing  when  tickled,  are  instincts  of  babyhood;  to  feel  jeal- 
ousy when  rivalled  by  one  of  the  same  sex,  and  to  act  con- 
spicuously when  attracted  by  one  of  the  opposite  sex,  are  in- 
stincts of  youth.  The  common  usage  of  the  words  instinct  and 
instinctive  differs  from  the  psychologist's  usage.  People  com- 
monly say  that  they  do  or  feel  certain  things  instinctively  when 
they  act  or  feel  without  deliberation  or  forethought  or  clear  con- 
sciousness of  what  or  why;  e.g.,  'He  instinctively  lifted  the  glass 
to  his  lips.'  'By  instinct  I  realized  tliat  the  only  way  of  escape 
was  directly  through  the  fire.'  Neither  of  these  cases  would 
be  called  instinctive  by  the  psychologist.  For  to  him  an  instinct 
means  an  act  that  is  the  result  of  mere  inner  growth,  not  of 
training,  or  experience." 

Thus  we  see  that,  character  or  conduct  being  a  bundle  of 
habits,  and  habits  being  the  result  of  either  (1)  developing 
instincts  and  training  them,  or  (2)  altering  them  by  substitu- 
tion of  other  actions,  or  (3)  by  repressing  or  killing  them,  in- 
stinct lies  at  the  bottom  of  all  life.  Every  habit,  every  action, 
or,  as  James  puts  it  "every  acquired  reaction  as  a  rule  is  either 
a  complication  grafted  on  the  native  reaction  or  a  substitute  for 
the  native  reaction,  which  the  same  subject  originally  tended  to 
provoke.     The  teachers'  art  consists  in  bringing  about  the  sub- 


94  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

stitution  or  complication  of  reactions,"  impressions  from  without, 
that  is,  environment. 

Classification  of  instincts. 

The  following  classification  of  the  Feelings,  Instincts,  De- 
sires, Emotions  (all  of  which  are  the  same  thing  really)  is  tabu- 
laled  below  and  is  taken  from  Sully's  description  in  his  hand- 
book of  Psychology,  the  feelings  noted  in  parentheses  being 
additions  to  the  author's  classification: 

(1)  Bodily  feelings — sense  feelings: 

(a)  Organic,  as  feeling  warmth  and  cold. 

(b)  Special  sense,  as  feeling  from  touching  objects,  soft 

and  smooth,  or  hard  and  rough. 

(2)  Mental  feelings — emotions: 

(a)  Instinctive  or  egoistic — Fear,  anger,  rivalry,  love  of 
activity,  of  approbation  (envy,  jealousy,  hate,  shame, 
pride,  ambition). 

(h)  Social — Love,  sympathy  ( imitativeness,  pity,  philan- 
thropy, patriotism). 

(c)  Sentiments — 

(a)   Intellectual — Wonder,      curiosity.        Object, 

truth. 
(&)  Aesthetic — Tastes.     Object,  the  beautiful, 
(c)   Moral — Eeverence  for  duty  and  moral  law. 
Object,  moral  goodness. 
TJie  spontaneous  Religious  Interests  or  Instincts  of  chil- 
dren according  to  Dr.  K.  M.  Hodge  are  as  follows: 

1.  Avidity  for  stories  is  manifest  from  the  second  to  the  ninth 

year. 

(a)  Stories  of  simple  obedience  are  called  for  until  the 

seventh  year. 

(b)  Stories   of   the   reasonableness   of   obedience   for   the 

eighth  and  ninth  j'^ears. 

2.  The   History-and-Gcography-loving  period   begins   with   the 

tenth  year, 
(a)   Histories  of  the  reasonableness  of  obedience  are  re- 
quired from  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth  year.    Here  be- 
longs the  National  History  of  the  Hebrews. 


A   STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  95 

(h)  Fondness  for  history  concerning  the  higher  life,  the 
life  controlled  hy  love  of  God  and  man,  is  pro- 
nounced from  tlic  thirteenth  year,  the  period  of  al- 
truism and  conversion.  Here  are  to  be  assigned  the 
biograjihies  of  Jesus  and  the  Apostles. 

3.  Desire  for  rules  of  conduct,  grounded  upon  the  authority  of 

common  experience  is  manifested  by  the  eleventh  year. 
For  two  or  thn^e  years  Biblical  Proverbs  and  similar  say- 
ings are  more  welcome  than  at  any  other  period. 

4.  The   development   of   the   constructive   imagination   becomes 

pronounced  by  the  eighteenth  year.  This  calls  for  the 
study  of  the  discourses,  letters,  and  ways  of  working  of 
social  reformers,  such  as  the  Old  Testament  Prophets, 
the  Apostles  and  Christian  leaders  since  their  time. 

5.  Rudimentary  anticipations  of  the  interests  which  dominate 

later  periods  of  child  development  arc  to  be  nourished  as 

soon  as  manifested,  by  introducing  into  the  earlier  parts 

of  the  curriculum  more  or  less  of  the  material  which,  as 

a  whole,  is  reserved  for  the  periods  when  these  respective 

interests  become  the  controlling  ones. 

For  this  reason,  and  on  account  of  the  extreme  simplicity  of 

Christ's  revelation  of  Cod  and  human  conduct,  stories  of 

Jesus'  life  and  teachings  should  be  assigned  among  the 

earliest  Bible  lessons  for  children. 

According  to  Professor  Thorndike:  "So  also  envy,  jealousy, 

fear,  delight  in  cruelty  and  the  like  must  be  eliminated,  as  well 

as  ignorance  or  disobedience.     Good  teaching  will   substitute 

honest  rivalry  and  sympathy  for  envy  and  jealousy,  and  inhibit 

delight  in  cruelty  by  cultivating  the  opposing  habits  of  care  and 

protection.      Ambition,   pride,    anger   and   the    other   emotions 

which   are  good   or  bad  according  to  their  objects   should   be 

directed  as  carefully  as  the  capacities  to  observe,  remember,  and 

argue. 

"To  hate  aright  is  as  necessary  as  to  infer  aright.     'The 
great  secret  of  education,'  says  Adam  Smith,  'is  to  direct  vanity 
to  proper  objects.' " 
Instincts  of  Educational  Value. 

Instincts  are  really  controlling  motives,  and  this  list  will  be 
referred  to  again  when  we  come  to  consider  Incentives  to  Order. 


96  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

Animals  have  been  considered  the  creatures  of  instinct,  and 
yet  it  is  likely  that  men  have  a  far  larger  assortment  of  native 
impulses.  The  entire  list  is  too  enormous  to  enumerate.  A  few 
are,  however,  im2:)ortant,  that  we  may  either  repress,  educate,  or 
increase  them. 

Fear. — This  is  one  of  the  earliest  motives  to  appear,  and 
one  of  the  lowest  to  use,  for  it  paralyzes  spontaneity  of  character 
and  produces  servility.  For  certain  classes  of  children,  usually 
low  in  breeding  and  accustomed  to  punishment,  it  may  be  the 
only  motive  that  will  appeal  to  the  understanding.  It  is  never 
suited  to  any  save  undeveloped  moral  natures. 

Love. — A  strong  and  Godlike  impulse.  Use  it  wisely  and 
well.  Almost  the  strongest  power  in  the  Sunday  school  is  the 
personal  affection  that  exists  for  the  teacher.  It  is  well  that 
this  is  so,  even  though  it  often  prove  a  barrier  to  proper  grading, 
and  the  transference  of  pupils  to  other  classes.  The  bond  of 
sympathy,  the  power  of  affection  and  personal  example,  the 
heart-side  of  education  is  God-like,  and  should  never  be  despised. 
The  teacher  who  has  lost  the  sympathy  and  affection  and  respect 
of  the  children,  had  better  resign  the  class  at  once.  For  teachers 
they  love,  children  will  do  a  great  deal  to  manifest  their  affec- 
tion. Order,  even  under  a  dry  subject  and  pretty  lifeless  teach- 
ing, may  be  secured  and  maintained  for  a  long  time  by  a  teacher 
who  is  beloved.  It  is  perhaps  not  the  theoretically  ideal  basis  on 
which  order  is  securable;  but  it  is  one  of  the  very  best  and  high- 
est that  small  children  can  be  possessed  of. 

Mrs.  Loud  remarks  that :  "It  may  seem  an  unnecessary 
strictness  to  oblige  a  child  to  be  accurate  in  the  small  details  of 
arranging  his  work  orderly  on  paper  or  slate.  But  the  teacher 
who  allows  slipshod  methods  of  work  to  pass  through  her  hands, 
is  aiding  that  child  along  a  slipshod  path  of  morality.  Accept 
nothing  but  the  best  work  of  a  pupil,  and  you  are  establishing  a 
stable  character,  which  will  not  only  give  the  child  a  grip  on 
material  things,  but  will  give  the  child  a  strength  of  character  in 
ethical  matters  as  well.  Teach  the  child  that  nothing  is  right 
that  is  not  exactly  right,  and  you  are  training  him  in  a  respectful 
observance  of  moral  duties  that  will  keep  him  from  imbibing 
the  atmosphere  of  careless  indifference  to  moral  obligations  that 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  97 

has  niado  these  duties  seem  of  so  much  less  moment  now,  than 
they  were  believed  formerly  to  be." 

Curiosity. — In  the  best  sense  it  is  a  desire  to  know,  the  seek- 
ing after  truth.  It  is  one  of  the  very  best  instincts  to  be  culti- 
vated. The  Inquiring  Attitude,  wliich  we  speak  of  later  on,  is 
the  foundation  stone  of  all  education  and  scholarship. 

In  childhood  it  confines  itself  to  material  objects,  the  con- 
crete, theoretic  curiosity  about  rational  relations  does  not  awaken 
until  adolescence  is  reached.  Answer  a  child's  everlasting  inter- 
rogation point,  especially  as  to  concrete  knowledge,  and  you  need 
never  trouble  about  order.  His  absorption  will  be  absolute  and 
complete.  Curiosity  is  universal.  There  is  no  question  of  arous- 
ing it.  Only  supply  material  to  satisfy  it.  Moreover,  remember 
that  "curiosity  in  the  child  will  become  love  of  the  truth  in  the 
man."  It  is  met  by  taking  the  child  by  the  hand  and  leading 
him  into  the  wide,  wondrous  realm  of  truth-investigation.  It  is 
Longfellow's : 

"Come  and  wander  with  nie. 
Into  regions  yet  untrod; 
And   read   what  still   is   unread 
In  the  manuscripts  of  God." 

x\nd  this  attitude  toward  curiosity  marks  the  trend  of  the  entire 
method  we  should  pursue  in  all  education.  Follow  truth,  no 
matter  where  she  leads,  only  be  certain  that  it  is  the  truth,  and 
that  sure  foundations  underlie  the  path  we  tread  to  her  abode. 

Drawbridge  says:  "Curiosity,  which  may  be  defined  as  'the 
hunger  of  the  mind,'  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  child- 
hood. Tlie  teacher  should  make  full  use  of  this  indispensable 
instinct.  In  the  first  place  he  should  raise  curiosity,  and  then 
concentrate  it  on  the  subject  in  hand.  It  is  impossible  to  teach 
without  the  interest  and  attention  of  the  pupil,  and  the  best  -way 
of  securing  these  is  to  raise  his  curiosity  in  the  subject.  The 
child  is  then  anxious  to  learn  what  the  teacher  is  eager  to  teach." 

Imitation. — Man  especially  imitates,  animals  do  not,  to  any 
great  extent.  We  nuike  use  of  it  in  every  phase  of  education. 
"Watch  me,  see  how  I  do  or  say  it,"  is  a  standard  phase.  This 
is  especially  true  of  all  types  of  manual  work,  whore  learning  by 
doing,  that  is  by  imitation,  is  almost  invariably  the  best  way  of 


nS  RELrOFOL'S  ElKXJATION 

teaching.  It  is  also  true  regarding  personal  habits,  such  as 
reverence,  love  of  trulli,  honesty,  loyalty,  etc. 

Emulation,  the  impulse  to  imitate  another  so  as  not  to  seem 
inferior.  ]t  was  developed  largely  by  the  Jesuits.  When  it  does 
not  engender  strife,  it  is  a  good  motive.  It  is  manifested  in 
rivalry,  in  group-work,  in  the  emj)loy]nent  of  incentives  as  prizes, 
honors,  rewards,  etc.  The  tone  of  a  class  or  school  is  kept  up  by 
the  spirit  of  emulation,  the  pride  in  keeping  traditions  alive. 
All  individual  improvement  results  from  the  basal  instinct  of 
rivalry.  There  is  both  a  selfish  and  noble  rivalry;  and  James 
assures  us  that  "it  is  the  noble  and  generous  form  that  is  par- 
ticularly common  in  childhood."  Ambition  is  perhaps  a  pro- 
nounced form  of  pride  and  emulation.  Pugnacity  is  still  another 
exhibition  of  it.  Make  the  child  ashamed  of  being  downed  by 
difficulties,  because  you  make  him  anxious  to  keep  up  to  his 
possible  self,  to  do  his  hcst  because  it  is  his  best  and  because  he 
is  capable  of  it.  So  long  as  the  bond  of  human  sympathy  exists, 
a  proper  kind  of  emulation  will  always  appear.  Much  can  be 
accomplished  in  maintaining  order  by  emulation,  both  between 
individual  scholars  and  between  neighboring  classes. 

Competition,  which  is  similar  to  emulation,  and  which,  if  it 
be  not  allowed  to  degenerate  into  rivalry,  is  of  benefit  in  stimu- 
lating flagging  energies  and  keeping  that  eagerness  which  secures 
healthy  order. 

Love  of  Activity,  numifested  by  want  of  change,  change  of 
posture,  or  of  subject,  or  of  method  of  recitation.  Dullness  and 
sameness  are  fatal  to  good  order.  Therefore  make  frequent 
alteration  both  in  the  position  of  the  children  (the  more  frequent 
the  younger  they  are),  in  the  method  of  teaching  the  lessons, 
varying  from  a  routine  plan  each  week  or  so;  and  in  the  subject, 
or  at  least  in  its  treatment,  so  far  as  may  be. 

Consciousness  of  Power. — This  is  not  the  same  as  Emula- 
tion, Ambition,  etc.  It  is  the  feeling  of  advance  in  control  and 
discipline,  self-mastery,  such  as  one  experiences  after  accom- 
plishing a  difficult  piece  of  work.  When  a  child  comes  to  feel 
that  he  has  a  special  power  he  is  responsible  for,  he  seldom  neg- 
lects to  make  use  of  it. 

Professor  James  in  a  magazine  article  on  the  "Powers  of 
Men"  in  the  American  for  ISTovember,  1907,  speaks  of  getting 


A    STL'DY   OF   PSYCHOLOGY  99 

one's  second  wind.  ''Everyone  knows,"'  lie  says,  ''what  it  is  to 
start  a  piece  of  work,  either  intellectual  or  muscular,  feeling 
stale — or  cold,  as  an  Adirondack  guide  once  put  it  to  me.  And 
everybody  knows  what  it  is  to  'warm  up'  to  his  Job.  The  process 
of  warming  up  gets  particularly  striking  in  the  phenomenon 
known  as  'second  wind.'  On  usual  occasions  we  make  a  practice 
of  stopping  an  occupation  as  soon  as  we  meet  the  first  effective 
layer  (so  to  call  it)  of  fatigue.  We  have  then  walked,  played, 
or  worked  'enough,'  so  we  desist.  That  amount  of  fatigue  is  an 
efficacious  obstruction  on  this  side  of  whi(;h  our  usual  life  is  cast. 
But  if  an  unusual  necessity  forces  us  to  press  onward,  a  sur- 
prising thing  occurs.  The  fatigue  gets  worse  up  to  a  certain 
critical  point,  when  gradually  or  suddenly  it  passes  away,  and  we 
are  fresher  than  before.  We  have  evidently  tapped  a  level  of  new 
energy,  masked  until  then  by  the  fatigue-obstacle,  usually 
obeyed.  There  may  be  layer  after  layer  of  this  experience.  A 
third  and  a  fourth  'wind'  may  supervene.  Mental  activity 
shows  the  phenomenon  as  well  as  physical,  and  in  exceptional 
cases  we  may  find,  beyond  the  very  extremity  of  fatigue-distress, 
amounts  of  ease  and  power  that  we  never  dreamed  ourselves  to 
own,  sources  of  strength  habitually  not  taxed  at  all,  because 
habitually  we  never  push  through  the  obstruction,  never  pass 
those  early  critical  points. 

"It  is  evident  that  our  organism  has  stored-u})  reserves  of 
energy  that  are  ordinarily  not  called  upon,  but  that  may  be  called 
upon:  deeper  and  deeper  strata  of  combustible  or  explosible 
material,  discontinuously  arranged,  but  ready  for  use  by  any- 
one who  probes  so  deep,  and  repairing  themselves  by  rest  as  well 
as  do  the  superficial  strata.  Most  of  us  continue  living  unneces- 
sarily near  our  surface.  Our  energy-budget  is  like  our  nutritive 
budget.  Physiologists  say  that  a  man  is  in  'Nutritive  Equili- 
brium' when  day  after  day  he  neither  gains  nor  loses  weight, 
l^ut  the  odd  tiling  is  that  this  condition  may  obtain  on  aston- 
ishingly different  amounts  of  food.  Take  a  man  in  nutritive 
equilibrium,  and  systematically  increase  or  lessen  his  rations. 
In  the  first  case  he  will  begin  to  gain  weight,  in  the  second 
case  to  lose  it.  The  change  will  be  greatest  on  the  first  day, 
less  on  the  second,  still  less  on  the  third;  and  so  on,  till  he  has 
gained  all  that  he  will  gain,  or  lost  all  that  he  will  lose,  on  that 


100  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

altered  diet.  lie  is  in  nutritive  equilibrium  again,  but  with 
a  new  weight ;  and  this  neither  lessens  nor  increases  because  his 
various  combustion-processes  have  adjusted  themselves  to  the 
changed  dietary.  ITc  gets  rid,  in  one  way  or  another,  of  just  as 
much  N.  C.  H.  etc.,  as  he  takes  in  per  diem. 

"Just  so  one  can  be  in  what  I  might  call  efficiency-equilib- 
rium (neither  gaining  nor  losing  power  when  once  the  equilib- 
rium is  reached),  on  astonishingly  different  quantities  of  work, 
no  matter  in  what  direction  the  work  nuiy  be  measured.  It  may 
be  physical  work,  intellectual  work,  moral  work,  or  spiritual 
work. 

"Of  course,  there  are  limits;  the  trees  don't  grow  into  the 
sk}^  But  the  plain  fact  remains  that  men  the  world  over  possess 
amounts  of  resource,  which  only  very  exceptional  individuals 
push  to  their  extremes  of  use.  But  the  very  same  individual, 
pushing  his  energies  to  their  extreme,  may  in  a  vast  number  of 
cases  keep  the  pace  up  day  after  da}?-,  and  find  no  'reaction'  of 
a  bad  sort,  so  long  as  decent  hygienic  conditions  are  preserved. 
His  more  active  rate  of  energizing  does  not  wreck  him ;  for  the 
organism  adapts  itself,  and  as  the  rate  of  waste  augments,  aug- 
ments correspondingly  the  rate  of  repair. 

"I  say  the  rate  and  not  the  time  of  repair.  The  busiest 
man  needs  no  more  hours  of  rest  than  the  idler.  Some  years 
ago  Professor  Patrick,  of  the  Iowa  State  University,  kept  three 
yoTing  men  awake  four  days  and  nights.  When  his  observations 
on  them  were  finished,  the  subjects  were  permitted  to  sleep 
themselves  out.  All  awoke  from  this  sleep  completely  refreshed, 
but  the  one  who  took  longest  to  restore  himself  from  his  long 
vigil  only  slept  one-third  more  time  than  was  regular  with  him." 

Ownership. — This  instinct  arises  in  the  second  year  of  life. 
Private  ownership  cannot  be  practically  abolished  until  human 
nature  is  changed. 

Loan  a  child  a  lead  pencil,  and  he  will  use  it  mechanically; 
give  it  to  him,  and  he  will  use  it  with  still  more  interest;  let  him 
buy  it,  and  it  is  at  once  suffused  with  the  halo  of  ownership. 
That  is  the  reason  why  it  is  advised  that,  no  matter  how  poor  or 
wealthy  a  school  may  be,  the  children  be  required  to  bu}''  the 
picture-mounting-book  or  note  book,  while  the  school  supplies 
the  pictures.    In  the  same  way  in  distributing  Bibles  and  Prayer 


A  STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  101 

Books,  it  is  far  better  to  let  the  children  pay,  say  one-half  the 
cost,  in  order  that  they  may  value  it.  Ownership,  if  it  costs 
something,  creates  interest  of  a  very  strong  kind.  In  some 
schools  even  the  lesson  books  are  sold  to  the  scholars,  just  as  in 
many  public  schools  to-day.  Magazines  which  we  receive  free  we 
seldom  read.  Those  that  we  pay  for,  we  read  to  get  our  money's 
worth. 

The  Accumulating,  Collecimg,  Acquisitive  Instinct  makes 
"collections"  of  stamps,  coins,  postmarks,  eggs,  and  the  like. 
Use  it.  Turn  it  into  the  right  directions.  Suggest  the  forma- 
tion of  a  school  collection  of  religious  pictures,  of  scrap  books 
or  files,  of  models,  or  of  Bible  illustrative  material.  Neat,  clean 
lesson  books,  careful  notes,  etc.,  may  be  secured  in  this  manner. 

Constructivencss. — Up  to  the  eighth  or  ninth  year,  children 
do  little  else  than  handle  things,  tear  apart,  explore,  which  is  the 
early  stage  of  construction.  Later,  they  put  together,  when  they 
have  learned  how  to  do  it.  So  education  seizes  on  the  early  years 
for  construction  and  object-teaching. 

Certainty. — The  Instinct  for  Certainty  appears  soon  after 
the  child  begins  to  learn  and  know.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest 
instincts  of  intelligent  life,  often  seen  before  the  third  year. 
While  the  child  is  very  credulous  he  is  being  prepared  for  an 
after  life  of  investigation,  proof,  and  certainty.  The  instinct 
for  certainty  is  strong  during  the  childhood  stage.  Children 
first  want  empirical  proof,  testing  by  the  use  of  sensations  and 
the  muscles.  Authority  and  testimony  are  appealed  to  soon 
after.  They  quote  others  as  witnesses.  Asseveration  is  a  com- 
mon mode  of  bringing  assurance — "honest,  truly,  deed  and 
double,  honor  bright,  hope  to  die,  sure  as  fate,  honest  and  true, 
black  and  blue,  lay  me  down  and  cut  me  in  two,"  are  a  few  of 
the  many  terms  of  adjuration  children  invent  to  satisfy  their 
instinct  for  the  true. 

Instincts  of  Pugnacity. — The  fighting  instinct  offers  a  use- 
ful illustration  of  the  general  superiority  of  substitution  over 
repression  as  a  means  of  inhibiting  instincts !  If  punishing 
boys  for  fighting  would  cure  them  of  it,  the  instinct  would  be 
its  own  cure,  for  the  fighting  itself  brings  physical  pain  enough. 
As  we  all  know,  mere  repression  is  here  a  most  uneconomical  pre- 
ventive, whereas  the  substitution  of  orderly  boxing  and  wrestling. 


102  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

football,  basket-ball  and  the  like,  often  succeeds  admirably. 
You  cannot  push  the  Niagara  river  back  into  Lake  Erie  and  keep 
it  there,  but  you  can,  by  creating  new  channels  for  it,  make  it 
drive  the  wheels  of  factories  in  the  service  of  man.  So  often 
with  the  impulses  of  human  nature. 

Other  Instincts. — Many  other  instincts  are  scon,  such  as 
Shyness,  Secretiveness,  etc.  They  are  apparent  as  traits  of 
Character.  The  point  is  that  we  recognize  them  as  Instincts  to 
be  trained;  and  not  think  that  because  a  child  possesses  a  given 
trait  that  is  undesirable,  it  must  necessarily  retain  it  always. 
It  is  ours  to  educate  it  out  of  him. 

Transitorincss  of  Instincts. — James  gives  us  the  law  of  the 
transitoriness  of  instincts :  "Many  instincts  ripen  at  a  certain 
age  and  then  fade  away.  A  consequence  of  this  law  is  that  if, 
during  the  time  of  such  an  instinct's  vivacity,  objects  adequate 
to  arouse  it  are  met  with,  a  liahit  of  acting  on  them  is  formed, 
which  remains  when  the  original  instinct  has  passed  away;  but 
that  if  no  such  objects  are  met  with,  then  no  habit  will  be 
formed ;  and,  later  on  in  life,  when  the  animal  meets  the  objects, 
he  will  altogether  fail  to  react,  as  at  the  earlier  epoch  he  would 
instinctively  have  done.  Xo  doubt  such  a  law  is  restricted. 
Some  instincts  are  far  less  transient  than  others — those  con- 
nected with  feeding  and  self-preservation  may  hardly  be  tran- 
sient at  all,  and  some,  after  fading  out  for  a  time,  recur  as 
strong  as  ever;  e.  g.,  the  instincts  of  pairing  and  rearing  young. 
To  detect  the  moment  of  the  instinctive  readiness  for  the  sub- 
ject is,  then,  the  first  duty  of  every  educator.  As  for  the  pupils, 
it  would  probably  lead  to  a  more  earnest  temper  on  the  part  of 
college  students  if  they  had  less  belief  in  their  unlimited  future 
intellectual  potentialities,  and  could  be  brought  to  realize  that 
whatever  physics  and  political  economy  and  philosophy  they  are 
now  acquiring  are,  for  better  or  worse,  the  physics  and  political 
economy  and  philosophy  that  will  have  to  serve  them  to  the  end." 

Thorndike  puts  it  in  a  more  concise  manner:  "If  an  in- 
stinct does  not  accord  with  our  notions  of  desirable  behavior,  we 
may  and  do  get  rid  of  it.  If  it  is  advantageous,  we  must  take 
pains  to  provide  the  conditions  to  call  it  into  use  and  to  allow  its 
action  to  result  in  pleasure.  Instincts  are  a  fund  of  capital 
loaned  to  us  by  nature  for  a  period,  not  given  outright.     Only 


A   STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  103 

on  condition  that  thoy  are  used  and  bring  satisfaction  do  they 
become  our  permanent  property." 

Habits. 

Tendencies  to  reaction  or  response  which  are  formed  in 
whole  or  in  part  by  experience  or  training  are  called  Habits. 
The  instincts  become  habits  as  soon  as  experience  focuses  or 
alters  them.  Practically  all  of  human  behavior  is  a  series  of 
habits.  The  essential  nature  is  the  same  whether  the  habit  is 
partially  formed  and  rarely  used,  or  fully  formed  and  always 
used.  Any  tendency  for  anything  to  go  with  anything  else, 
mental  or  physical,  is  cither  a  case  of  pure  instinct  or  of  habit. 
Habits  not  in  action,  and  the  possibilities  of  forming  habits,  are 
called  Powers.  The  inborn  qualities  which  are  the  partial  basis 
for  the  development  of  mental  powers,  as  it  were  instincts  of 
possibility,  are  called  Capacities. 

As  Miss  Slattery  says : — "Behind  every  habit  lies  a  motive, 
so  that  when  the  teacher  begins  to  plan  the  formation  of  good 
habits  and  the  destruction  of  bad  ones  in  his  children,  the  first 
step  is  a  search  for  motive.  'Why  does  the  child  do  this?'  is  a 
constant  question.  Here  is  a  child  who  lies  every  time  he  is 
accused  of  anything.  'I  didn't  do  it,'  falls  from  his  lips  before 
the  accusation  is  finished.  The  lie  of  imagination  is  entirely 
different  from  the  lie  of  convenience.  Why  does  he  lie?  In  his 
particular  case  he  lies  to  save  himself  from  punishment.  He  is  a 
coward.  He  is  afraid  of  punishment,  but  not  of  lying.  As  I 
study  his  case  I  may  find  that  he  has  been  severely  and  unjustly 
punished  and  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  better  to  lie 
and  escape.  My  task  is  then  clear.  I  must  make  him  despise 
his  cowardice  and  give  him  a  profound  fear  of  a  lie,  while  I  do 
my  best  to  introduce  into  his  make-up  courage  enough  to  take 
his  punishment,  even  though  severe,  rather  than  lie.  When 
Ananias  fell  dead  'great  fear'  came  upon  all  who  knew,  a  fear 
of  lying  and  deceit,  and  it  had  a  tremendous  influence  upon  those 
who  constituted  the  Church  in  the  first  few  years.  One  of 
the  worst  things  which  can  happen  to  a  child  is  to  tell  a  lie 
and  not  get  caught.  I  am  glad  when  I  find  a  child  who  is 
afraid  to  lie." 


104  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

Habits  are  thus  acquired  reactions,  and,  when  formed, 
become  second  nature,  or  as  the  Duke  of  Wellington  said,  "ten 
times  nature."  An  acquired  habit,  from  the  psychological  point 
of  view,  is  nothing  but  a  new  path-way  of  discharge  formed  in 
the  brain  by  which  certain  in-coming  currents  ever  after  tend  to 
escape. 

James  states:  "The  moment  one  tries  to  define  what  habit 
is,  one  is  led  to  the  fundamental  properties  of  matter.  The  laws 
of  Nature  are  nothing  but  the  immutable  habits  which  the  dif- 
ferent elementary  sorts  of  matter  follow  in  their  actions  and  re- 
actions upon  each  other.  In  the  organic  world,  however,  the 
habits  are  more  variable  than  this.  Even  instincts  vary  from 
one  individual  to  another  of  a  kind ;  and  are  modified  in  the  same 
individual,  as  we  shall  later  see,  to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the 
case.  On  the  principles  of  the  atomistic  philosophy  the  habits 
of  an  elementary  particle  of  matter  cannot  change,  because  the 
particle  is  itself  an  unchangeable  thing;  but  those  of  a  com- 
pound mass  of  matter  can  change,  because  they  are  in  the  last 
instance  due  to  the  structure  of  the  compound,  and  either  out- 
ward forces  or  inward  tensions  can,  from  one  hour  to  another, 
turn  that  structure  into  something  different  from  what  it  was. 
That  is,  they  can  do  so  if  the  body  be  plastic  enough  to  maintain 
its  integrity,  and  be  not  disrupted  when  its  structure  yields. 
The  change  of  structure  here  spoken  of  need  not  involve  the  out- 
ward shape ;  it  may  be  invisible  and  molecular,  as  when  a  bar  of 
iron  becomes  magnetic  or  crystalline  through  the  action  of  cer- 
tain outward  causes,  or  india-rubber  becomes  friable,  or  plaster 
'sets.'  All  these  changes  are  rather  slow;  the  material  in  ques- 
tion opposes  a  certain  resistance  to  the  modifying  cause,  which 
it  takes  time  to  overcome,  but  the  gradual  yielding  whereof  often 
saves  the  material  from  being  disrupted  altogether.  When  the 
structure  has  yielded,  the  same  inertia  becomes  a  condition  of  its 
comparative  permanence  in  the  new  form,  and  of  the  new  habits 
the  body  then  manifests.  Plasiiciiy,  then,  in  the  wide  sense  of 
the  word,  means  the  possession  of  a  structure  weak  enough  to 
yield  to  an  influence,  but  strong  enough  not  to  yield  all  at  once. 
Each  relatively  stable  phase  of  equilibrium  in  such  a  structure 


A   STUDY  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  105 

is  marked  b}-  what  we  may  call  a  new  set  of  habits.  Organic 
matter,  especially  nervous  tissue,  seems  endowed  with  a  very 
extraordinary  degree  of  plasticity  of  this  sort;  so  that  we  may 
Avithout  hesitation  lay  down  as  our  first  proposition  the  follow- 
ing: that  the  phenomena  of  habit  in  living  beings  are  due  to  the 
plasticity  of  the  organic  materials  of  wliicli  their  bodies  arc 
composed." 

Thus,  M.  Leon  Dumont  writes :  "Every  one  knows  how  a 
garment,  after  having  been  worn  a  certain  time,  clings  to  the 
shape  of  the  body  better  than  when  it  was  new ;  there  has  been  a 
change  in  the  tissue,  and  this  change  is  a  new  habit  of  cohesion. 

"A  lock  works  better  after  being  used  some  time ;  at  the  out- 
set more  force  was  required  to  overcome  certain  roughness  in  the 
mechanism.  The  overcoming  of  their  resistance  is  a  phenome- 
non of  liabiiualion.     It  costs  less  trouble  to  fold  a  paper  when  it 

has  been  folded  already x\nd  just  so  in  the  nervous 

system  the  impressions  of  outer  objects  fashion  for  themselves 
more  and  more  appropriate  paths,  and  these  vital  phenomena 
recur  under  similar  excitements  from  without,  when  they  have 
been  interrupted  a  certain  time." 

Ennis  Richmond  here  is  ideally  inspiring:  "Do  we  put  be- 
fore the  children  in  our  charge  such  an  ideal  that  their  educa- 
tion includes  a  gradual  training  of  their  instinctive  desire  to 
worship  something  into  a  clear  knowledge  of  what  is  worthy  of 
worship?  It  seems  almost  too  obvious  a  platitude  to  say  that 
only  by  making  ourselves  worthy  of  the  respect  of  all,  can  we 
hope  to  earn  for  ourselves  the  true  respect  of  even  the  youngest 
child,  and  yet  it  appears  to  be  a  necessary  ingredient  of  my  argu- 
ment, for  we  are  so  incurably  apt  to  assume  that  age,  as  such,  de- 
mands respect,  just  as  we  are  apt  to  assume  that  age,  as  such, 
demands  obedience." 

There  is  only  one  firm  foundation  for  real  obedience  of  any 
kind,  and  that  foundation  is  Trust,  and  any  other  kind  of  obedi- 
ence which  we  must  enforce  while  the  real  lesson  is  being  learned 
are  only  steps  toward  the  acquiring  of  true  obedience,  that  which 
means  that  we  trust  the  dispenser  of  rule. 


106  RKLrOTOUS  EDUCATION 

The  Elements  of  Moral  Training. 

Tliorndikc  s;iys:  "The  training  of  character  is  corres- 
pondingly complex.  Useful  instincts  must  be  given  a  chance  to 
exercise  themselves  and  become  liabits.  Harmful  instinctive  re- 
sponses must  be  inhibited  through  lack  of  stimulus,  through  the 
substitution  of  desirable  ones,  or  through  actual  resultant  dis- 
comfort, as  best  fits  each  special  case.  The  mind  must  be  sup- 
plied with  noble  ideas  through  the  right  examples  at  home,  in 
school,  in  the  world  at  large,  and  in  books.  These  ideas  must  be 
made  to  issue  in  appropriate  action,  or  they  may  be  worse  than 
useless.  The  capacity  to  examine  any  situation,  and  see  what 
is  the  essential  fact  in  it  which  should  decide  action,  must  be 
constantly  exercised  and  guided.  The  habits  of  letting  'It  is 
right,'  or  'It  is  best,'  or  'It  will  be  for  the  real  welfare  of  the 
world,'  or  the  like.  I)e  an  absolutely  final  warrant  for  action  must 
be  firmly  fixed.  '^Phe  will  must  be  prevented  alike  from  precipi- 
tate responses  and  from  dawdling  indecision.  The  power  to  ban- 
ish from  the  mind  attractive  but  unworthy  ideas,  and  to  go  on 
one's  way  regardless  of  the  effort  involved  in  so  doing,  must  be 
gradually  built  up.  Especially  important  is  the  actual  formation 
of  definite  habits.  If  a  man  is  made  to  obey  a  thousand  particular 
'This  is  right's,'  and  'That  is  right's,'  he  will,  so  far  as  he  has  the 
capacity,  come  to  connect  respect  and  obedience  with  the  ab- 
stractly right  and  true.  If  he  does  what  he  has  to  do  well,  and 
treats  his  fellow-beings  as  he  should  in  the  thousands  of  situa- 
tions of  the  ordinary  course  of  life,  he  will  gain  the  power  to 
conquer  attractive  counter-impulses." 

The  Self. 

This  is  a  rather  abstract  subject,  but  we  dare  not  pass  over 
at  least  a  mention  of  the  philosophic  treatment  of  the  Self,  or 
the  Ego.  James,  in  his  Briefer  Course  (page  176  ff.)  deals  with 
its  various  aspects  clearly  and  logically.  It  is  a  chapter  well 
worth  reading.  He  takes  up  the  Self  as  Known,  dividing  it  into 
the  Material  Me,  the  Social  Me,  and  the  Spiritual  Me;  and  the 
Self  Knower  or  Thinker,  that  is,  the  pure  Ego.  The  chief  im- 
portance of  the  Self  to  us  is  the  Interests  which  appear  in  the 


A  STITDY  OF   rSYCHOLOGY 


107 


cliild  and  upon  which  wo  can  play.     He  gives  them  in  tabuhir 
form  as  follows : 


MATERIAL 


SOCIAIi 


SPIRITUAL 


Self- 
Seekiug. 


Bodily  Appe- 
tites and  Instincts, 
Love  of  Adorn- 
ment, Foppery,  Ac- 
quisitiveness, Con- 
structlveness,  Love 
of  Home,  etc. 


Desire  to  Please, 
be  Noticed,  Ad- 
mired, etc.  Socia- 
l)i!ity.  Emulation, 
Envy,  Love,  I'ur- 
sult  of  Honor,  Am- 
bition, etc. 


Intellectual,  Mor- 
al, and  Ueiigious 
Aspirations,  Con- 
scientiousness. 


Self- 
Estimation. 


Personal  Van- 
ity, Modesty,  etc., 
Pride  of  Wealth, 
Fear  of  Poverty. 


Social  and  Fam- 
ily Pride,  Vain- 
Klory,  Snobbery. 
Humility,  Shame, 
etc. 


Sense  of  Moral 
or  Mental  Supe- 
riority, Purity,  etc. 
Sense  of  Inferior- 
ity or  of  Guiit. 


Strictly  speaking  they  are  instincts  which  we  use  in  forming 
habits,  the  motives  to  which  we  can  appeal. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

What  are  Instincts?    Why  important? 

What,  if  any,  diflerence  is  there  between  Sunday  School  Teaching 

and  other   teaching  in  tlie   use  of   the   native   reaction  of   Fear? 

Of  Love? 
How  does  the  assignment  of  special  work  to  individuals  in  a  class 

appeal  to  the  "ambitious  impulses"?    Illustrate. 
In   what  ways   may   the   instinct   of  Ownership,   or   the   Collecting 

Impulse,  be  turned  to  account  in  Sunday  School  work? 
What    connection    between    the    tendency    to    Constructiveness    and 

the  concrete  or  dramatic  presentation  of  a  lesson  or  character  is 

there  ? 
Explain  "Habit." 

What  particular  habits  would  you  strive  to  form  at  each  age? 
What  Instincts  are  of  special  value  to  the  Sunday  School  Teacher? 
What  possible  "Selves"  liave  we? 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

Primary  Age. 

SUGGESTED  HEADINGS. 

The  Stages: 

♦Up  Through  Childhood.     Hubhell.     pp.  111-131. 

Teachku  Training.     Roads,     pp.  22-24. 

Sunday  School  Science.     Holmes,     pp.  17-21. 

rsvcHoi.oGic  EouNUATioN.s  OF  EDUCATION.     Harris,     pp.  300-321. 

•TALK.S  TO  Teachehs.     Jamcs.     pp.    146-150. 

Hints  on  Child  Tkaining.     Trumbull.     Chap.  XIV. 

♦I'Jducation  in  Religion.     Coe.     pp.  220-300/^. 

*TiiE  Chukchman's  Manual.     Butler,     pp.  8-30. 

The  Primary  Age: 

Teacher  Training.     Roads,     pp.  25-30. 

The  Teacher,  the  Child,  and  the  Hook.     Schaufflcr.     p.  103. 

Character  Building.     Color,     p.   188. 

Philosophy  ok  the  Unconscious.     Varlyle. 

•The  Mind  of  a  Child.     Richmond. 

•Pedagogical  Piulb  School.     Haslett.     pp.  102-114,  246-248. 

•Education   in  Religion.     Coe.     pp.  133,  229. 

•A  Study  in  Child  Nature.     Harrison.     All. 

•The  I'oiNT  OF  Contact.     Dulioia.     All. 

•The  Churchman's  Manual.     Butler,     pp.  109-136. 

The  Hook  op  the  Child.     Hoio.     All. 

Newer  Methods.     Lee.     pp.  32,  34,  35,  37. 

Stages  or  Divisions  of  Child-Development. 

We  have  seen  that  the  instincts,  motives,  impulses,  desires, 
interests  of  the  child  have  a  definite  method  of  development, 
and  unfold  at  well  recognized  stages  or  periods  in  life.  Not 
only  is  his  bodily  growth  an  orderly  progress,  but  his  mental 
activity  is,  as  well.  Both  of  these  determine  our  Method  and 
our  Curriculum.  Our  Point  of  Contact  is  the  child  at  each 
particular  stage  of  development,  his  needs,  his  interests,  the 
environment  that  will  be  best  adapted  to  the  well  rounded  un- 
folding of  his  powers.  These  definite  stages  or  steps  reach  from 
infancy  to  manhood.  The  line  of  demarcation  separating  them 
is  not  by  any  means  clear  and  distinct.     These  divisions  are: 


THE   STACHvS   OK    l)KVKLOl\MENT  109 

(1)  Infancy,  or  Babyhood,  the  suckling  period,  only  to  the  first 
year.  (2)  Early  Childhood,  the  Primary  Age,  from  one  to  six 
years,  sonietinies  called  the  Kindergarten  Age.  These  two 
stages  are  divided  by  Dr.  Alvord  Butler  into  the  Age  of  Instinct, 
from  one  to  three,  and  the  Age  of  Impulse  from  three  to  six. 
(3)  Childhood,  from  six  to  twelve  years  of  age,  sometimes 
divided  into  the  primary  school  age,  from  six  to  eight  and  one- 
half  or  nine  (t.  e.  Third  grade  Day  School).  Dr.  Butler  again 
makes  two  divisions  of  this  period,  from  six  to  nine,  the  Age 
of  Imitation,  and  from  nine  to  twelve,  the  Age  of  Habit.  (4) 
Youth  or  Adolescence,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  or  nineteen  years 
of  age,  sometimes  divided  into  Early  Adolescence,  from  twelve 
to  sixteen,  the  Age  of  Moral  Crises,  and  Middle  Adolescence, 
from  sixteen  to  nineteen,  tlie  Age  of  Komancc  and  Ideality. 
(5)  Later  Adolescence,  from  eighteen  to  twenty-five,  the  age  of 
Decision.     (6)  Manhood,  from  twenty-five  years  onward. 

We  shall  now  consider  the  stages  of  Child  Development, 
bearing  in  mind  constantly  the  two  points  already  elucidated : 

The  mental  powers  develop  in  a  definite  order,  thus  Per- 
ception, Memor}^,  Imagination,  Eeflection,  and  Insight  (these 
being  the  former  stages  of  Perception,  Analysis,  Synthesis,  Rea- 
son and  Philosophic  Insight). 

The  Instincts,  that  great,  crowding  army  of  hereditary  de- 
sires and  impulses,  generally  rise  to  maturity  and  then  either 
remain  constant  as  Habits,  or  wane  and  die  out;  though  not  all 
at  once,  nor  in  the  same  order  in  every  child. 

I. — The  Primary  Age,  One  to  Six  Years  Old.     1-3,  Age  of  Instinct; 
3-6,  Age  of  Impulse. 

1.    Physical  Characteristics. 

Restlessness. — The  small  child  can  keep  still  about  fifty 
seconds,  the  teacher  probably  thinks  it  is  less  than  that.  There- 
fore, the  Kindergarten  School  will  provide  for  movement  and 
motion ;  opening  and  closing  hymns  will  be  marching  songs ;  the 
offertory  will  be  taken  to  a  marching  collection  hymn;  Motion 
hymns  will  be  used ;  the  children  will  be  encouraged  to  come  for- 
ward and  point  out  people  and  objects  in  their  pictures,  on  the 
sand  table,  or  the  blackboard.  There  will  be  constant  motion 
every  few  minutes  for  the  wee  children. 


110  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

Activity. — The  child  must  be  doing  or  he  cannot  grow. 
"Growth  advances  from  the  more  general  or  fundamental  mus- 
cles to  those  that  are  secondary  or  accessory.  A  child  uses  its 
larger  muscles,  those  that  move  the  large  joints  and  limbs,  and 
develops  them  before  it  trains  the  smaller  muscles  that  move  the 
smaller  joints.  A  child  can  run,  jump,  roll,  skip,  kick,  strike, 
leap,  push,  and  pull  before  it  can  write,  sew,  carve,  draw,  tie, 
knit,  and  manijjulate  a  musical  instrument  skillfully,  march,  or 
dance  gracefully.  The  skillful  use  of  tlie  hands  and  feet  is 
acquired  after  the  general  and  untrained  use  of  the  same  has 
been  developed,"  says  Ilaslett.  He  is  by  nature  rhythmical  and 
loves  music.  He  Avill  move  his  body  constantly  in  response  to 
the  music.  About  the  third  year  is  the  beginning  of  a  nascent 
stage  for  singing.  Music  may  well  consume  the  major  portion  of 
the  instruction  hour.  Pictures,  models,  blackboard,  sand  table, 
action  exercises,  and  stories  may  occupy  the  remainder.  In  Har- 
rison's Study  or  Child  Nature  it  says:  "Making  a  restless 
child  keep  still  is  a  repression  of  this  nervous  energy,  which  irri- 
tates the  whole  nervous  system,  causing  illtemper,  moroseness, 
and  general  uncomfortableness.  If  this  force  could  be  properly 
expended,  the  child  would  be  always  sunny-tempored.  This 
legitinuite  and  natural  investigative  activity  needs  only  to  be  led 
from  the  negative  patli  of  destruction  into  the  positive  one  of 
construction.  Instead  of  vainly  attempting  to  suppress  the  new- 
born power  of  the  young  pioneer,  or  searcher  after  truth,  guide 
it  aright.  Give  him  playthings  which  can  be  taken  to  pieces 
and  put  together  again  without  injury  to  the  material.  The 
positive  method  of  training  builds  up  the  cheering,  optimistic 
character  which  is  so  much  needed.  Who  are  the  men  and 
women  that  are  lifting  the  world  upwards  and  onwards?  Are 
they  not  those  who  encourage  more  than  they  criticise  ?" 

Love  of  Play,  which  to  the  child  is  serious  and  earnest  work. 
The  educational  value  of  play  is  now  fully  recognized  by  the 
Day  School.  Coe  says :  "The  plays  of  the  young,  since  they 
reveal  the  spontaneous  interests,  have  become  a  clue  to  educa- 
tional problems;  and  since  spontaneous  interest  has  become  the 
leverage  of  the  teacher  in  the  education  of  the  child,  the  con- 
scious effort  of  teachers  has  been  to  make  the  work  of  the  school- 
room somewhat  like  the  work  of  the  playground.     There  is  no 


TIIK   STAGES   OF    DKNKLOl'.M  KM'  111 

absolute  dividing  line  between  llie  two  kinds  of  work.  Nor  is 
this  all.  For  play  itself  turns  out  to  be  a  first-class  educational 
process.  The  play  instinct  is  Nature's  way,  and  so  God's  way,  of 
developing  bod}',  mind  and  cliaracter.  Quickness  and  accuracy 
of  perception;  coordination  of  the  muscles,  which  puts  the  body 
at  the  prompt  service  of  the  mind;  rapidity  of  thought;  accuracy 
of  judgment;  promptness  of  decision;  self-control;  respect  for 
others;  the  habit  of  cooperation;  self-sacrifice  for  the  good  of  a 
group — all  these  products  of  true  education  are  called  out  in 
play  and  games.  Further,  the  play  instinct  varies  with  the  dif- 
ferent species  and  with  the  two  sexes,  so  that  its  specific  forms 
prepare  the  individual  for  his  specific  functions.  The  plays  of 
a  lamb  prepare  for  the  activities  of  a  grazing  animal ;  those  of  a 
lion's  whelp  foretell  the  pursuit  and  killing  of  prey.  The  plays 
of  a  girl  look  forward  to  motherhood;  those  of  a  boy  to  protect- 
ing, building,  acquiring.  In  short,  play  is  a  part  of  jSTature's 
school. 

"Eelation  of  Play  to  h'cligious  Education.  The  relation  of 
play  to  religious  education  demands  a  specific  word.  Just  as 
the  gap  between  the  school  and  play  is  being  filled  up,  so  the 
home  and  the  Church  should  now  at  last  awake  to  the  divine 
significance  of  the  play  instinct  and  make  use  of  it  for  the  pur- 
pose of  developing  the  spiritual  nature.  The  opposition  be- 
tween the  play  spirit  and  the  religious  spirit  is  not  real,  but 
only  fancied ;  just  as  that  between  play  and  schooling  in  general. 
Through  our  ignorance  we  have  put  asunder  that  which  God 
hath  joined  together.  Here  is  the  secret  of  much  of  our  lack  of 
power  with  young  people.  We  teach  children  to  think  of  their 
most  free  and  spontaneous  activities,  their  plays,  as  having  no 
affinity  for  religion,  and  then  we  wonder  why  religion  does  not 
seem  more  attractive  to  them  as  they  grow  toward  maturity ! 
We  mask  the  joy  and  freedom  of  religion  by  our  long  faces,  our 
perfunctory  devotions,  our  whispers  and  reticences,  and  then  we 
find  it  strange  that  young  people  are  so  inordinately  fond  of 
worldly  pleasures !" 

As  late  as  the  year  1900  a  prominent  Sunday  school  leader 
insisted  upon  Keeping  up  this  paralyzing  distinction.  "It  is 
wrong,"  he  said,  "to  talk  about  the  kindergarten  of  the  Bible 
school.    Wise  primary  workers  are  averse  to  turning  any  part  of 


112  IIEI.IGIOUS  EDUC^ATION 

ilie  Bible  school  into  a  kindergarten  because  the  tboiiglit  of  play 
should  be  kept  for  places  otlier  than  God's  house,  and  for  times 
other  than  the  Txjrd's  day.  The  little  ones  should  be  taught 
reverence  very  early  in  life."  As  long  as  such  notions  prevail, 
we  should  expect  children  to  exclude  God  from  their  plays,  think 
of  religion  as  unnaturnl,  and  either  grow  up  indifferent  to  re- 
ligion or  else  reserve  their  reverence  for  the  Lord's  Day  and  the 
Lord's  House.  Unless  we  discover  the  unity  of  play  with  edu- 
cation in  religion  as  v/cU  as  with  so-called  education,  we  shall 
never  secure  control  of  the  whole  child  or  the  whole  youth  for 
Christ. 

Savagery. — In  his  life  history  a  child  repeats  the  history  of 
the  race,  physically  and  psychically,  socially  and  religiously. 
This  is  what  is  known  as  the  Recapitulation  Theory.  It  is  ex- 
pounded very  fully  by  Haslett  (pp.  318  to  225). 

Little  children  are  savages.  They  manifest  such  unthink- 
ing cruelty  at  times  that  any  explanation  of  it  is  difficult  apart 
from  the  theory  of  savage  characteristics  of  ancestors  being 
repeated  in  the  children.  Instincts  are  inherited  habits.  They 
are  our  ancestors'  ways  of  doing  things  handed  on  to  their  off- 
spring. They  are  individual  habits  that  have  become  racial. 
The  Culture  Epochs  Theory  attempts  to  determine  what  those 
interests  are  and  the  time  of  their  natural  appearance  and  the 
proper  food  for  their  nourishment.  Passing  through  the  stages 
of  racial  history  in  its  pre-human  development ;  the  child  ascends 
from  savagery  to  civilization  in  a  broad  and  general  way,  with,  of 
course,  individual  variations. 

Dr.  Coriat  writes :  "This  evolution,  and  consequent  mental 
and  moral  development,  is  the  result  of  experience,  environment, 
and  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  even  knowledge  of  the  most 
abstruse  and  philosophical  kind,  for  no  one  to-day  holds  to  the 
doctrine  of  innate  ideas.  I  have  said  that  children  resemble 
savage  and  primitive  man;  that  is,  they  are  over-credulous,  plas- 
tic, simple,  open  to  and  reacting  to  all  kinds  of  suggestions.  A 
blind,  non-selective  belief  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  child- 
hood. As  is  well  known,  children  assent  to  everything.  Imagi- 
nation runs  riot  in  them ;  they  have  a  maze  of  ideas  without 


THE  sta(;es  ok  dknklim'.mkxt  ii;; 

(Icfinito  plan,  as  must  have  been   perceived  by   all   readers  of 
Pierre  Loti's  admirable  Story  oi'^  a  Child." 

2.    Mental  Characteristics. 

Dependence  on  Others. — The  child  clings  to  its  mother  and 
teacher  and  gladly  follows  every  suggestion  made  by  them.  It 
shows  lovingness  to  an  extreme  degree.  All  coldness  or  harsh- 
ness will  at  once  drive  the  child  of  this  period  away.  Only  a 
person  of  very  low  moral  qualities  will  deceive  or  be  harsh  with 
a  child.  Well  has  Scripture  said :  "Whosoever  offendeth  one  of 
these  little  ones  who  believe  in  Me,  it  were  better  for  him  that  a 
millstone  were  hanged  about  his  neck  and  that  he  were  drowned 
in  the  midst  of  the  sea." 

Franhness  and  Artlessness,  in  his  Doings  and  Sayings. — 
Not  seeing  cause  and  effect  he  is  outspoken  in  his  statements  and 
eagerly  tells  everything  he  knows. 

Failh  and  Trust. — Ideal  faith  is  noticed  especially  along 
Eeligious,  Symbolic,  and  Mystical  lines.  The  child  has  its 
fetiches,  which  it  often  deifies  and  appears  to  worship.  The  con- 
tents of  a  small  child's  pockets  will  show  a  collection  of  fetiches 
closely  akin  to  the  age  of  savagery.  It  is  intensely  anthropomor- 
phic. God  is  literally  to  him  an  old  "Man."  He  knows  Jesus 
Christ  as  a  person  with  a  body,  and  does  not  at  all  realize  that 
God  the  Father,  and  God  the  Son  are  pure  spirit.  In  fact  he 
cannot  appreciate  what  a  spirit  is.  A  great  many  adults  have 
crude  ideas  of  God.  The  mother  of  a  little  three  year  old  child 
told  the  writer  that  she  had  not  instructed  her  little  girl  about 
God  at  all,  waiting  until  it  became  older,  that  she  might  under- 
stand better.  Someone  else,  however,  told  the  child,  and  the 
little  girl  came  to  her  mother  for  fuller  information.  Then  the 
mother  told  her  fully.  The  little  child  had  been  taken  some 
weeks  previous  to  the  circus  to  see  Buffalo  Bill.  Ever  since  that 
visit  her  ideal  and  hero  had  been  Buffalo  Bill.  She  talked  of 
him  constantly,  and  when  she  set  chairs  for  her  dolls  at  play- 
ing tea,  she  set  an  empty  chair  for  Buffalo  Bill,  pretending  that 
he  was  present.  When  told  about  God,  the  child  looked  up  at 
her  mother  and  said:  "Well,  mamma,  then  I  must  set  a  chair 
for  God,  mustn't  I?*'  The  mother  took  her  literally,  and  said 
"yes."     The  next  time  the  child  was  playing,  there  were  two 


]]}  KELKUULS  Ein  (ATIOX 

cliairs  set,  one  for  God  and  one  for  Buffalo  Bill.  No  harm  is 
done,  probably,  by  this  kind  of  anthropomorphism,  and  the  child 
outgrows  it  in  time. 

Professor  Pratt  writes:  ''It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  say 
at  just  what  age  the  period  of  childish  credulity  above  described 
comes  to  an  end.  It  differs  with  different  children.  Earl  Barnes 
thinks  that  the  tenth  year  is  generally  the  turning  point,  and  in 
this  he  is  probably  right.  Still,  the  questioning  spirit  which 
finally  puts  an  end  to  the  child's  naive  acceptance  of  what  is 
told  him  manifests  itself  in  many  children  long  before  this." 

It  is  important  to  interpret  this  symbolism  of  the  small 
child  aright  in  our  Sunday  school  teaching,  or  we  may  utterly 
miss  the  mark.  Miss  Anna  W.  Williams,  Superintendent  of  the 
Public  Kindergartens  in  Philadelphia,  says:  "The  object  or 
'symbol,"  as  it  is  falsely  called,  as  generally  applied  in  Sunday 
school,  does  not  give  a  child  a  clearer  vision  of  truth,  but  rather 
leads  him  away  from  it.  We  confuse  the  application  of  symbol 
to  the  adult  and  the  child's  interpretation  of  it.  Symbolism  to 
the  adult  is  the  representation  of  spiritual  truth  by  means  of 
material  things;  to  the  child  the  symbol  stands  for  an  object. 
For  instance,  'Thy  word  is  a  lamp  unto  my  feet,  and  a  light 
unto  my  path,'  referred  to  the  custom  of  wearing  lamps  on  the 
feet  to  prevent  the  bite  of  serpents,  and  to  avoid  dangers.  This 
illustration  is  meaningless  to  any  human  being,  whether  adult 
or  child,  who  has  not  felt  the  guidance  of  God's  word  in  a  dark 
hour  of  life,  and  the  need  of  such.  A  cliild  must  have  the  ex- 
perience before  he  can  interpret  the  symbol.  Showing  him  a 
foot  with  a  lamp  on  it  does  not  give  experience,  which  is  the  es- 
sential element  of  the  story;  it  simply  tells  him  the  method  of 
lighting  the  path  in  Oriental  countries. 

"The  idea  must  be  gained  through  life  experience,  through 
feeling,  before  the  symbol  means  anything.  'If  thine  eye  offend 
thee,  pluck  it  out,  and  cast  it  from  thee.'  No  child  could  feel 
the  meaning  of  this  figure  of  speech,  since  he  has  had  no  life 
experience  of  gangrenous  sickness  and  the  corrupting  power  of 
sin.  Children  do  not  look  beyond  the  immediate  sin,  while  the 
adult  does  realize  the  mass  of  corrupting  evil  that  grows  from 
what  we  call  'minor  sins,'  such  as  speaking  ill  of  one's  neigh- 
bors, leading  to  greater  sin,  such  as  neglect  of  prayer. 


THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  115 

"A  child's  use  of  symbolisni  is  a  totally  dilTerent  one.  lie 
explains  one  thing  by  another  thing.  He  makes  a  chair  (a 
thing)  represent  a  train  of  cars  (another  thing),  his  father's 
cane  a  horse.  He  would  never  put  the  cane  for  something  he 
did  not  understand.  He  makes  one  thing  he  understands  repre- 
sent another  thing  he  understands.  For  instance,  he  would  never 
of  himself  use  the  spiritual  expression,  'My  soul  doth  magnify 
the  Lord'  by  the  use  of  a  magnifying  glass  in  his  hand,  as  has 
been  done  in  illustrating  a  Sunday  school  lesson.  'Magnify' — 
to  nuike  great,  larger  in  size  than  a  common  glass  can  do — in  no 
way  expresses  Mary's  feelings  of  exaltation  in  the  greatness  and 
loving-kindness  of  God,  and  the  honor  given  to  her,  as  she  ex- 
presses it  in  the  Magnificat.'' 

Persotiification. — Xot  only  does  the  child  personify  religion 
to  a  marked  degree,  demanding  clear  definite  personal  teaching 
about  God,  but  it  personifies  concrete  inanimate  objects.  Jjiter- 
ally  it  talks  to  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  To  its  playthings  it 
attributes  life.  On  a  railroad  train  the  other  day  a  little  four- 
year-old  youngster  was  looking  at  a  freight  train  and  had  been 
talking  to  its  mother  about  this  kind  of  a  train.  As  the  passen- 
ger car  pulled  away  from  the  freight,  the  child  looked  out  of  the 
window  and  said  "Good-by,  Mr.  Freight  Train."  Similar  in- 
stances are  constantly  found  with  children  of  this  age. 

Utter  Self -Unconsciousness. — A  small  child  is  seemingly 
self-assertive,  and  "pushes  himself  forward."  For  example  he 
is  not  afraid  of  front  pews  in  Church,  while  adults  are  exasper- 
atingly  averse  to  them.  Many  parents  and  teachers  are  apt  to 
chide  children  for  this  self-assertion.  It  is  not  that  the  child  is 
self-assertive,  rather  it  is  self-unconsciousness.  It  would  be  a 
good  thing  if  he  could  keep  that  self-unconsciousness. 

Imitativeness  which  reproduces  even  bad  actions.  In  the 
kindergarten  and  primary  ages  the  children  imitate  their  par- 
ents. In  the  next  age,  Childhood,  they  imitate  their  companions. 
In  adolescence,  they  imitate  noble  deeds,  ideals.  This  early  stage 
of  imitation  is  frequently  lost  sight  of,  and  attributed  to  hered- 
ity. The  note  on  heredity  in  a  previous  chapter  explains  why 
the  child  is  termed  a  "chip  off  the  old  block." 

Curiosity. — It  is  the  child's  period  of  accumulation.  He  is 
gathering  in  facts.    The  whole  vista  of  a  new  world  is  open  be- 


IIG  IIELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

fore  him.  Until  adolescence  he  will  ask  "fact  questions"  and 
constantly,  "Who  ?  Where  ?  What  ?"  will  be  on  his  lips.  Without 
curiosity  he  could  never  learn.  First  he  is  destructive,  and  then 
constructive ;  first  he  pulls  apart  to  see  what  things  are ;  later  on, 
but  not  before  ten  or  eleven,  he  puts  together. 

Imagination  is  very  active  and  the  perceptions  are  crowding 
on  him  so  that  he  prefers  to  live  in  the  life  of  make-believe  rather 
than  in  that  of  reality.  While  his  perceptions  are  active,  they 
are  not  keen,  nor  accurate.  His  imagination  is  almost  uncontrol- 
lable; fancy  runs  riot  in  his  growing  brain,  and  the  world  of 
make-believe  is  often  more  real  than  the  world  he  sees  and  hears. 
The  stories  that  he  tells  which  we  call  falsehoods  are  true  stories 
from  his  world  of  make-believe,  in  which  he  is  living,  and  they 
should  be  treated  accordingly.  Every  writer  on  Childhood,  with 
scarcely  a  single  exception,  James,  Butler,  Coe,  Harrison,  Bir- 
ney,  Richmond,  Forbush,  Hall,  How,  all  say  that  the  child's  so- 
called  "lies"  are  disturbed  imagination  and  seldom  intentional. 
This  wonderful  imagination  is  no  doubt  closely  allied  with  the 
early  portions  of  memory.  Many  a  child  has  suffered  at  the 
hands  of  his  parents  for  words  which  they  have  ruthlessly  called 
"lies,"  though  so  closely  prompted  by  a  vivid  imagination  and 
seeming  true  to  the  utterer.  "It  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
things,"  says  How,  "to  define  exactly  where  the  knowledge  of 
untruthfulness  comes  in.  Probably  no  two  children  are  alike  in 
this,  and  it  requires  the  utmost  tact  and  the  utmost  knowledge  of 
the  particular  child's  character  to  determine  the  point  where  the 
one  thing  ends  and  the  other  begins."  Most  children's  lies  are 
simply  the  work  of  the  imagination.  They  intend  no  harm  or 
deception  whatever.  At  this  age  they  are  unable  to  distinguish 
between  fact  and  fancy,  and  the  imagination  uses  both  inter- 
changeably. The  child  unconsciously  colors  the  story  in  the 
telling.  He  is  more  or  less  inclined  towards  superstition  the 
first  four  or  five  years  of  this  period.  The  wilder  and  more  un- 
reasonable the  superstitious  stories,  the  readier  is  the  child  to 
take  them  up  and  nourish  his  marvel-enjoying  mind  upon  them. 

Says  Haslett,  quoting  from  Oppenheim:  "He  naturally  in- 
clines to  superstition  because  its  beliefs  titillate  his  wonder- 
loving  cast  of  mind.  .  .  .  It  is  Just  as  easy  for  him  to  be- 
lieve that  God  will  kill  bad  little  boys  by  a  thunderbolt  as  it  is  to 


THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  117 

recognize  the  orderly  working  of  an  electric  current.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  he  would  rather  believe  a  tale  of  miracles  than  a 
recital  of  plain  facts.  A  tale  of  fairies  and  dwarfs  is  just  as 
real  to  him  as  the  recital  of  holy  events  which  concern  the  acts 
of  the  good  angels  and  Satan." 

Much  of  folk  lore  and  mythology  can  be  explained  when  we 
thus  recognize  that  the  adult  nations,  as  well  as  individuals, 
have  frequently  never  gotten  beyond  this  imagination  stage. 

Egoistic  Feelings  are  very  prominent  in  early  childhood. 
"A  little  child  is  self-centered,  because  he  has  not  learned  to 
think  of  others  or  to  work  for  others.  He  early  manifests  pride, 
and  self-love,  and  self-pity,  and  self-approbation,  and  selfishness, 
and  something  akin  to  greed.  Fear,  delight,  love,  curiosity, 
wonder,  sympathy,  and  love  of  approbation  are  feelings  that 
the  teacher  and  parent  may  wisely  observe  in  the  instruction 
of  little  children." 

Miss  Harrison  wisely  says :  "The  love  which  instinctively 
comes  from  a  child  to  its  mother  is  usually  shown  in  the  caressing 
touch  of  the  baby  hands,  the  tremendous  hug  of  the  little  arms, 
the  coaxing  kiss  of  the  rosy  lips,  and  is  to  the  fond  mother  an 
inexpressible  delight.  Nor  need  she  rob  herself  of  one  such 
moment;  while  her  child  is  in  the  loving  mood,  let  her  ask  of 
him  some  little  service,  very  slight  at  first,  but  enough  to  make 
him  put  forth  an  effort  to  aid  her.  Thus  can  she  transform  the 
mere  selfish  love  of  the  child  into  the  beginning  of  that  spirit- 
ual love  which  Christ  commended  when  He  said,  'If  ye  love  Me, 
keep  My  commandments.' " 

Concreteness. — At  first  the  child  can  appreciate  only  the 
concrete,  that  is,  only  some  thing,  some  picture,  some  object, 
some  story,  which  will  give  him  a  mental  image,  or  mental  pic- 
ture actually  portraying  the  thing  in  his  mind.  He  cannot 
appreciate  the  abstract. 

Professor  Adams  says  concerning  the  Fundamental  dif- 
ference between  the  developed  and  the  undeveloped  mind :  "This 
difference  may  be  roughly  expressed  by  saying  that  the  undevel- 
oped mind  deals  more  with  the  concrete,  the  developed  with  the 
abstract.  The  child  deals  with  things  as  they  stand,  rather  than 
in  their  relations  to  one  another.  He  does  most  of  his  thinking 
by  pictures  or  by  types.    When  we  talk  of  a  dog,  he  thinks  of  his 


118  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

dog,  and  makes  it  stand  for  all  the  rest.  All  a  child's  senses  are 
at  least  as  keen  as  those  of  an  adult,  and  yet  the  adult  seems  to 
see  and  hear  more  than  the  child  does.  The  explanation  is  that 
we  see  with  our  minds  as  well  as  with  our  eyes,  we  see  the  present 
thing  in  the  light  of  all  we  have  seen  before,  so  that  the  adult 
brings  to  his  observation  much  that  is  still  unknown  to  the  child. 

"For  a  similar  reason,  adults  seem  to  remember  things  better 
than  children,  and  yet  children  have  the  advantage  in  the  way 
of  memory.  Perhaps  the  period  between  seven  and  ten  years  of 
age  is  that  at  which  memory  is  at  its  best.  At  that  age  children 
find  it  easiest  to  learn  things  by  rote.  The  memory  is  plastic, 
and  can  take  in  and  retain  all  sorts  of  unconnected  ideas. 
Systems  of  classification,  therefore,  arc  foreign  to  his  mind. 
This  is  pa7'  excellence  the  Story  Age,  reached  by  stories,  illus- 
trations, and  parables.'' 

There  should  be  a  clear  distinction  drawn  between  story, 
biography,  and  history.  A  story  is  a  detailed  concrete  portrayal 
of  an  event,  or  a  portion  of  an  event,  or  a  man's  life,  or  a  portion 
of  his  life.  The  story  age  runs  from  about  eight  and  one-half  to 
nine  years.  The  child  never  wearies  of  repetition.  The  same 
story  told  in  precisely  the  same  way  is  its  demand,  and  woe 
betide  the  mother  who  varies  a  line  from  the  story  as  she  told  it 
first.  "Tell  it  the  way  you  told  it  before,  mamma.  You  have 
not  told  me  just  as  it  was,"  is  his  constant  demand.  Biography 
is  less  detailed,  but  more  complete.  Biography  must  have  a  be- 
ginning and  an  ending,  it  must  be  presented  as  a  whole,  the 
man's  whole  life.  Dr.  Butler  tells  the  story  of  a  little  child  of 
ten  who  burst  out  crying  when  his  teacher  told  him  about  David 
and  Goliath  only.  "You  didn't  tell  about  David  as  a  baby,"  he 
wailed.  This  biography  age  runs  from  about  eight  and  one-half 
years  to  twelve  years.  History  is  still  different.  History 
means  relationships  and  generally  rests  on  cause  and  effect.  It 
is  the  man  and  Ids  times,  that  is  the  man  in  the  setting  of  his 
times.  Thus  the  same  Bible  material  may  be  at  one  time  story, 
at  another  biography,  and  at  another  history,  depending  upon 
the  treatment  and  the  age  of  the  child. 

The  Conscience  of  the  small  child  is  not  yet  developed.  His 
moral  nature  is  guided  by  Impulses  or  Instincts,  rather  than  by 
Conscience.    Questions  of  conscience  are  not  for  the  small  child. 


TIJK    SlA(;i:s   OF    DION  KI.Ol'MKiNT  1  U* 

The  cliikl  oxcrcisos  little  ctrori  in  choosing  between  a  right  and 
wrong  situation.  Conscience  is  very  vague.  Conscience  is  de- 
veloped, or  rather  it  is  read  and  interpreted,  through  mental 
knowledge.  Conscience  does  not  appear  strongly  in  a  child  until 
at  least  the  age  of  ten.  A  child  does  not  think  of  moral  quality 
in  the  abstract.  For  a  young  child,  good  is  what  is  permitted, 
evil  is  what  is  forbidden.  His  religious  ideas  are  few  and  vague ; 
he  is  not  immoral,  he  is  unmoral.  The  second  period,  that  from 
eight  to  twelve,  is  the  era  of  conscience  building.  The  purpose 
of  instruction  in  this  second  grade  is  so  to  educate  conscience 
and  the  whole  moral  nature  that  the  child,  being  impressed  with 
a  deep  sense  of  God's  authority  and  love,  should  be  obedient  to 
and  helpful  to  others,  and  so  in  right  doing  find  his  own  happi- 
ness. 

Mrs.  Birney  says  that  it  is  in  the  first  three  years  of  a 
child's  life  that  the  habit  of  obedience  is  most  easily  inculcated. 
If  parents  would  only  bear  this  in  mind,  they  would  save  them- 
selves much  needless  friction  and  anxiety.  The  wee  toddler,  just 
beginning  to  walk  and  talk,  is  quick  to  detect  the  difference  be- 
tween the  voice  of  authority  and  that  of  irresolute  command.  I 
believe  in  giving  reasons  as  early  as  one  can,  but  in  the  matters 
of  nursery  discipline  the  child  must  early  be  taught  to  obey,  be- 
cause he  is  told  to  do  so.  The  child's  needs  in  connection  with 
his  physical  well-being  are  much  the  same  from  day  to  day, 
while  his  wishes  are  subject  to  many  variations. 

One  of  the  simplest  ways  of  insuring  obedience  to  law  and  a 
willingness  to  accept  the  discipline  which  aids  in  the  establish- 
ment of  right  habit  and  thought  is  by  a  continual  direction  of 
the  child's  mind  to  the  rights  of  others.  If  he  has  broken  his 
companion's  toys,  he  should  replace  them  Avith  his  own,  not  be- 
cause he  will  punish  himself  thereby,  but  because  his  little 
friend  would  have  to  do  without  them  on  account  of  his  care- 
lessness, and  that  would  not  be  right.  The  application  of  the 
principles  of  justice  is,  in  the  daily  lives  of  children,  a  powerful 
factor  in  character  building. 

In  punishing  cliildren  the  difference  between  penalty  and 
discipline  should  be  kept  in  mind.  Penalty  is  the  inevitable 
price  demanded  by  broken  law,  and  though  it  may  teach  knowl- 
edge by  experience,  it  does  not  necessarily  develop  the  moral 


lliU  PvlOLlGJOUS  EDUCATION 

nature  of  the  child.  True  discipline  is  corrective,  and,  wlicn 
given  by  either  parent  or  teacher  in  wisdom  and  a  spirit  of  love, 
tends  to  strengthen  the  will  of  the  child  to  desire  the  good  and 
to  avoid  the  evil.  Choose,  of  course,  the  discipline  which  leads 
and  directs  rather  than  that  which  threatens  and  coerces  through 
fear. 

Only  one  sanction  is  as  yet  known  to  the  infant — that  of 
success;  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  has  not  yet  emerged. 
The  formation,  therefore,  of  the  earliest  habits  is  a  normal  phe- 
nomenon. Doubtless  the  young  child  sometimes  presents  an 
ugly  spectacle  of  apparent  selfishness  in  the  satisfaction  of  its 
appetites,  and  of  passionate  resentment  to  restraint  in  their  in- 
dulgence. But  in  such  behavior  it  is  only  following  its 
"nature."  Children's  dislike  of  restraint  upon  pleasure,  until 
developed  intelligence  discerns  its  reasonableness,  is  both  natural 
and  inevitable. 

In  other  words,  sin  first  becomes  a  possibility  when  the 
child  has  acquired  moral  personality.  And  this  it  does  through 
what  is  called  social  heredity.  Conscience  is  made,  not  born; 
or  rather,  it  is  given.  It  is  obtained  by  the  child  from  its  human 
environment.  The  growth  of  human  personality,  and  especially 
of  moral  personality,  has  been  found  to  be  pre-eminently  a  matter 
of  social  suggestions.  The  child  grows  into  the  adult  only  by 
drawing  upon  the  store  of  accomplished  activities,  forms,  and 
patterns  which  society  already  possesses. 

Psychologists  tell  us  that,  roughly  and  generally  speaking, 
tlie  awakening  of  the  moral  faculty  occurs  somewhere  about  the 
age  of  three  years.  The  rudimentary  stage  of  conscience  is 
called  out  chiefly  by  enforced  obedience  to  commands — obedience 
compelled  by  punishments.  It  gradually  learns  the  content  of 
moral  law,  however,  partly  by  instruction  and  correction,  partly 
by  imitation,  and  later,  by  reflection.  Thus  there  grows  up  very 
slowly  a  moral  ideal,  whose  fulness  enlarges  as  experience  widens. 
But  from  first  to  last  the  content  of  the  moral  law  is  learned 
from  environment.  And  when  conscience  has  thus  been  suf- 
ficiently developed  to  enable  the  child,  unaided,  to  condemn  its 
own  actions,  it  ceases  to  be  innocent  with  the  innocence  of  good 
and  evil.     Now,  for  the  first  time,  sin  becomes  a  possibility;  for 


THE   STAGES   OF   DEVEI.OIWIENT  121 

there  is  no  siu  without  a  law  and  an  appreliension  of  the  claim 
of  law. 

The  teacher's  attitude  toward  questions  of  Truth,  or  of 
Eight  and  Wrong  should  be  that  of  exactitude  and  precision 
rather  than  that  of  a  moral  wrong.  The  child  will  not  realize 
the  objective  wrong  of  it  to  God  until  he  knows  God  as  Law- 
Giver.  The  question  of  the  parent's  relation  to  the  child's  relig- 
ion is  an  important  one  at  this  point.  Frederick  D.  How,  in  the 
Book  of  the  Child,  says :  "Probably  one  of  the  earliest  perplex- 
ities that  presents  itself  to  a  parent,  is  the  question  of  the  child's 
religion.  And  yet,  it  is  doubtful  whether  in  the  generality  of 
cases  the  matter  is  considered  early  enough.  There  are,  evi- 
dently, three  kinds  of  parents  taking  three  separate  views  of  the 
question.  There  are  those  who  hold  distinctly  materialistic 
opinions,  and  who  therefore  deliberately  decline  to  enter  into 
the  subject  at  all.  They  agree  with  the  sentiments  expressed  in 
a  French  work  on  children,  published  some  quarter  of  a  century 
ago,  in  which  the  following  passages  occur:  'We  may  boldly 
assert  that  the  sense  of  religion  exists  no  more  in  the  intelligence 
of  a  little  child  than  does  the  supernatural  in  nature.'  And 
again :  'In  our  opinion  parents  are  very  much  mistaken  in  think- 
ing it  their  duty  to  instruct  their  little  ones  in  such  things,  which 
have  no  real  interest  for  them — as  who  made  them,  who  created 
the  world,  what  is  the  soul,  what  is  its  present  and  future  des- 
tiny, and  so  forth.' 

"But,  in  the  second  place,  there  are  some  parents  who  are 
simply  careless.  They  would  be  rather  shocked  at  being  told 
that  they  themselves  were  irreligious,  but,  when  they  forget  all 
about  their  children's  religion,  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  their 
own  is  of  much  more  real  concern  to  them. 

"Thirdly,  there  are  the  parents  who  desire  beyond  all  things 
that  their  children  shall  lead  religious  lives,  and  are  anxious  to 
do  their  utmost  to  start  the  little  feet  on  the  right  path.  It  is 
this  class  of  parent  who  is  often  perplexed  to  know  what  is  best. 
The  difficulties  are  certainly  great.  Children  differ  so  widely, 
that  what  is  good  for  one  child  may  be  harmful  for  another. 
But  in  almost  all  cases  the  tendency  is  to  put  off  religious  teach- 
ing too  long.  The  mind  of  a  very  young  child — one  who  would 
be  commonly  described  as  a  baby — has  been  proved  again  and 


122  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

again  to  be  remarkably  receptive  of  evil  as  well  as  of  good  in- 
fluences and  impressions,  and  the  earlier  a  baby's  mind  can  be 
filled  with  the  very  simplest  religious  truths,  the  less  room  there 
will  be  for  evil,  and  the  greater  the  likelihood  of  a  firm  belief 
in  truths  that  have  been  absorbed  almost  with  the  mother's  milk. 

"This  leads  to  the  question  of  how  far  a  very  young  child 
has  any  direct  personal  religion;  any  feeling,  that  is,  of  a  direct 
communication  even  of  the  most  elementary  kind  between  itself 
and  its  God,  without  the  intervention  of  any  human  being.  It 
would  probably  be  true  to  say  that  at  first  this  is  impossible,  but 
that  at  a  very  early  age  the  sense  can  be  imparted.  To  quote 
the  words  of  a  mother  who  has  brought  up  a  number  of  children 
in  the  fear  and  love  of  God,  personal  religion  in  children  ^of 
course  begins  by  being  mixed  up  with  Mother,  who,  if  she  is  a 
real  mother,  is  to  her  babies  the  representative  of  warmth,  com- 
fort, love,  and  everything  that  they  want.'  When,  in  addition 
to  this  a  child  has  depended  for  months  upon  its  mother  for 
food,  and  has  constantly  slept  in  her  arms,  the  influence  of  that 
mother  is  so  great  that  her  religion  naturally  becomes  the  relig- 
ion of  the  child,  who  accepts  every  word  she  says  absolutely. 
Thus,  the  'God  bless  you,'  and  the  words  of  loving  prayer  whicli 
come  so  often  and  so  naturally  to  a  mother  s  lips,  are  absorbed 
by  the  child  until  its  faith  in  some  unconscious  way  grows  into 
its  life,  and  becomes  a  real  thing  between  itself  and  its  God. 

"Observation  leads  at  this  age  to  a  love  of  nature,  especially 
in  its  wilder  aspects.  At  about  six  the  child  asks  who  made  the 
flowers,  the  grass,  and  the  different  objects  of  nature.  It  is  not 
satisfied  with  the  general  answer:  'God  made  everything.'  In 
its  struggle  for  monotheism  it  seeks  concrete  statements.  By 
the  end  of  the  kindergarten  class  period,  the  child  knows  God 
not  only  as  Father,  but  as  Creator.  He  must  come  to  know  the 
Ruler  of  the  Universe.  Like  the  savage  he  likes  to  read  about 
and  imitate,  he  worships  the  God  of  nature. 

"As  he  sees  nature  obey  laws,  so  he  sees  the  soldier  and 
sailor  obey.  He  has  had  his  own  first  lessons  in  obedience.  Once 
appreciating  this,  the  child  has  a  firm  foundation  for  a  moral 
conscience.  At  the  beginning  of  this  stage,  although  the  child 
may  not  know  the  meaning  of  the  word  conscience,  he  knows 
the  voice  of  right  and  wrong  within  him. 


THE  STAGES  OE  DEVELOPMENT  123 

"To  press  the  cause  of  Christ  early  in  this  stage  is  a  mistake. 
The  child  is  only  beginning  to  learn  what  a  cause  is.  As  has 
been  suggested,  during  the  first  part  of  this  period  even  in  his 
games  he  plays  for  himself  rather  than  for  his  side.  His  form 
of  baseball  is  for  individual  runs.  After  he  has  learned  in  games 
to  identify  his  interests  with  those  of  his  team  or  side,  we  can 
urge  the  championship  of  a  religious  cause." 

The  Memory  is  Weak. — Haslett  says :  "Psychologically,  the 
child's  memory  is  very  weak.  The  child  does  not  have  the  strong 
power  of  attention  so  essential  in  training  the  memory.  The 
greater  part  of  our  childhood  experiences  are  forgotten  soon 
after  we  pass  that  period.  But  psychologically,  the  memory  of 
early  childhood  is  strong,  since  the  brain  structures  in  children 
are  very  sensitive  to  impressions.  This  seems  to  be  one  reason 
why  aged  people  can  remember  the  experiences  of  their  early 
childhood  much  more  distinctly  than  those  of  recent  years.  The 
experiences  of  later  life  are  not  so  deeply  set  in  the  brain  struc- 
tures as  these  are  not  nearly  so  impressionable.  The  childhood 
impressions  are  the  most  lasting  and  the  most  influential,  since 
they  touch  the  whole  of  life." 

Sex-unconsciousness. — During  this  period  the  children  are 
so  absolutely  sex-unconscious  that  no  one  ever  thinks  of  separ- 
ating them  in  kindergarten,  or  in  primary  school.  This  instinct, 
however,  shows  a  most  marked  change  during  the  next  two 
periods,  childhood  and  adolescence.  During  childhood  there  is 
sex-repellance.  The  boy  says:  "I  wouldn't  play  with  girls," 
and  the  girl  says,  elevating  her  little  nose,  "T  wouldn't  be  seen 
playing  with  boys,"  and  so  they  are  separated  to  prevent  them 
from  fighting.  During  adolescence  they  are  sex-attracted,  and 
for  the  opposite  reason,  the  school  separates  them,  in  order  to 
get  any  work  out  of  them. 

Hints  to  Parents  and  Teachers. 

Prevent  Affectation. — Frederick  How,  who  is  heart  and 
soul  a  child-lover,  urges  this  caution  thus:  "Nothing  is  more 
sad  than  to  see  a  child,  at  an  age  when  his  or  her  natural  fresh- 
ness and  simplicity  should  be  most  clearly  in  evidence,  already 
cramped  and  artificial  through  an  effort  to  copy  some  older  per- 
son.   A  gentleman  once  took  shelter  in  a  house  during  a  heavy 


124  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

storm.  The  master  and  mistress  were  both  out,  but  their  little 
daughter  was  summoned  from  her  A,  B,  C  to  talk  to  the  unex- 
pected guest.  He  told  her  he  was  sorry  to  have  brought  her 
downstairs,  to  which  came  the  simpering  reply:  'Oh,  pray  don't 
mention  it !'  Contact  with  sincere  and  unaffected  people  will 
soon,  of  itself,  overcome  this  fault. 

"If  children  be  allowed  to  absorb  the  spirit  that  is  pervading 
the  world  at  the  present  day — the  spirit  of  revolt  against  all 
authority,  the  notion,  that  is,  that  everyone  is  to  do  exactly  as  he 
or  she  chooses — that  will  of  itself  bring  about  a  state  of  mind 
which  is  destructive  of  real  happiness.  Notions  such  as  these 
are  quickly  picked  up,  and  parents  who  themselves  set  all  rules 
and  authority  at  defiance  cannot  expect  their  children  to  sub- 
mit to  control. 

"Then  there  is  a  second  cause  which  is  too  often  at  work, 
and  which  does  a  great  deal  towards  turning  some  children  into 
disagreeable  and  discontented  young  folk.  When  people  are  con- 
tinually trying  to  emulate  if  not  excel  their  neighbors  in  appear- 
ance, and  in  the  entertainments  they  provide,  children  are  quick 
enough  to  take  their  cue  from  what  they  see  and  overhear,  with 
the  result  that  they  are  miserable  if  they  think  their  frocks  are 
less  fashionable  than  their  neighbors',  and  are  rude  and  discon- 
tented if  at  one  party  they  do  not  get  as  handsome  presents  as 
at  some  other.  This  is  all  wrong,  and  distinctly  diminishes  the 
pleasure  that  these  children  might  otherwise  enjoy." 

Develop  Necessary  Perception. — The  child  should  realize  at 
this  age  that  some  things  must  be  done  in  order  that  other  things 
may  be  enjoyed. 

"He  must  get  up  on  time,  and  dress  on  time,  or  he  cannot 
eat  breakfast  with  his  father.  It  is  most  wise  to  cultivate  this 
beginning  of  'necessary  perception,'  and  to  emphasize  it  in 
needed  discipline.  The  omission  of  discipline  teaches  the  child 
to  believe  that  nothing  is  necessary,  except  that  he  should  do  as 
he  likes  and  get  what  he  desires.  This  dangerous  attitude  is 
made  easy,  because  the  child's  physical  senses  are  as  active  as 
an  adult's,  while  his  understanding  is  only  partially  developed." 

Watch  the  Child's  Companions. — Mrs.  Birney  devotes  an 
entire  chapter  to  this  important  subject.  Among  other  advice 
she  says:  "Every  child,  every  boy  and  girl  who  comes  to  your 


THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  125 

house  to  sec  your  children,  should  be  an  object  of  intense  inter- 
est to  you;  watch  them  without  their  knowledge;,  and  if  you  see 
grave  faults,  speak  of  them  to  your  children;  speak  pityingly, 
as  though  you  felt  the  wrong-doers  might  not  know  better,  and 
urge  them  to  stand  up  bravely  at  all  times  for  the  things  that 
arc  right,  and  thus  by  their  influence  and  example  help  their 
companions  to  do  right." 

QUESTIONS   FOR  TITOUCTIT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  Into  what  General  Stages  is  Mental  Development  divided? 

2.  What  are  the  chief  Educational  Instincts  to  use  in  the  Kindergarten 

and  Primary  Ages? 

3.  How    will    Restlessness    and    Activity    Determine    Method    in    the 

Kindergarten  ? 

4.  What  is  the  Educational  Value  of  Play? 

5.  Discuss  the  Personification  and  Anthropomorphism  in  this  age. 

6.  Discuss  Lies  of  Imagination. 

7.  What  can  you  say  of  the  Small  Child's  Conscience? 

8.  What  Hints  are  Important  to  Parents  and  Teachers? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

Childhood. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Childhood: 

Letters  to  a  Mother.     Blow. 

Teacher  Training.     Roads,     pp.  30-33. 

♦The  Boy  Problem.     Forbitsh.     pp.  9-20. 

♦Through  Boyhood  to  Manhood.     Richmond. 

The  Training  of  the  Young  in  the  Laws  of  Sex.     Richmond. 

•Pedagogical  Bible  School.     Ilaslett.     pp.  127,  129-136. 

Education  in   Religion.     Coe.     pp.  239/f. 

♦Churchman's  Manual.     Butler,     pp.  112-113,  136-169. 

♦Childhood.     Birncij.     Index. 

il. — The  Second  Period,  Later  Childhood,  from  Six  to  Twelve  Years 
of  Age.    6-9,  Age  of  Imitation;  9-12,  Age  of  Habit. 

This  stage  of  boyhood  and  girlhood  is  the  great  teaching 
period,  especially  in  Sunday  school.  The  Day  school  succeeds  in 
holding  children  a  little  longer,  often  through  college  courses. 
The  Sunday  school  is  apt  to  lose  the  children,  particularly  boys, 
just  as  the  age  of  puberty  approaches,  the  critical  time  when 
they  most  need  religion  and  loving  guidance. 

1.    Physical  Characteristics: 

Less  Restlessness. — The  child  can  keep  quiet  and  pay  atten- 
tion a  little  longer  than  before. 

Tireless  Activity. — This  is  not  so  manifest  perhaps  as  at 
the  Primary  Age;  but  still  it  is  a  feature.  Children  love  action. 
Doing  is  their  first  thought.  The  best  way  to  teach  the  Bible 
now  is  by  doing  Christian  work,  bringing  into  play  both  good 
works  and  handicraft,  in  class  illustration.  Give  children  some- 
thing to  do,  and  their  interest  is  at  once  attracted  and  held. 
They  may  weary  soon  of  doing  the  same  thing.    That  is  natural. 


THE   STACKS   OF   DKVRLOPMENT  127 

Change  then  to  t^onieiliing  else.  His  games  now  arc  active 
games,  sport  or  romping,  not  sedentary.  Tlu;  heroic  attracts 
him  botli  from  its  phase  of  courage  and  daring  and  from  its 
activity  and  doing.  Hero-worship  is  manifest  at  every  turn. 
Use  it,  then.  Present  Jesus  Christ,  the  Ilero-King.  Give 
the  Old  Testament  Heroes  and  the  Apostolic  llccord  of  Brave 
Deeds.  Let  him  read  Miss  Yonge's  Book  of  Golden  Deeds,  and 
see  how  lie  devours  it.  Tales  of  Travel  and  Adventure  form  the 
main  part  of  his  reading.     It  is  his  Old  Testament  time  of  life. 

The  Senses  are  still  the  most  noticeable  feature  and  the 
highly  alert  child  is  seeking  information  at  every  source.  He  is 
"a  perambulating  interrogation  point."  Be  patient  with  him 
then,  for  it  is  the  learning  time  of  life.  Give  him  all  he  asks, 
quietly,  gently,  clearly,  patiently.  So  long  as  he  is  really  anxious 
to  acquire,  take  time  fully  to  explain  all  he  can  well  compre- 
hend. His  inquiries  often  appear  foolish  to  you.  They  are  not 
so  to  him,  for  he  has  not  learned  to  see  things  as  you  see  them. 
Mrs.  Kennedy  tells  us  that  a  child  now  "is  always  hungry, 
mentally  and  physically." 

Irresistible  Imfulsiveness  marks  this  period.  The  child  is 
thoughtless  to  a  dangerous  extreme.  Impulse,  instinctive  action, 
is  uppermost.  Conscience  is  just  rising  into  power.  Yet  just 
because  impulses  are  active,  that  is,  action-forming,  it  is,  yar 
excellence,  the  Habit-forming  age.  As  such,  it  is  of  paramount 
significance,  for  character  building  is  Habit-training.  All  the 
high  moral  and  Christian  Habits  are  to  be  formed  now.  Love  of 
honesty,  honor,  truth,  purity,  faithfulness,  courage,  gentleness, 
kindness,  love  of  study,  neatness,  promptness — in  fact  all  the 
Personal  Habits — are  "set"  by  the  end  of  this  period.  The 
habits  of  reverence,  gentleness,  courtesy,  like  their  opposites,  are 
absorbed  by  the  child  from  those  with  whom  he  is  most  closely 
associated.  It  is  in  these  attributes  that  an  "ounce  of  example 
outweighs  a  pound  of  precept."  The  habits  may  alter  in  the 
upheaval  of  Puberty,  but  it  is  unlikely.  "The  boy  is  changing," 
says  Forbush,  "from  a  bundle  of  instincts  to  a  bundle  of  habits; 
the  trails  are  becoming  well-travelled  roads.  Boyhood  is  the  time 
for  forming  habits,  as  adolescence  is  the  time  for  shaping  ideals. 
It  is  the  era  for  Conscience-building,  as  the  latter  is  for  Will- 
training." 


128  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

According  to  Mrs.  Birncy :  "  'A  place  for  everything,  and 
everything  in  its  phice,'  is  one  of  the  first  habits  a  child  should 
be  taught,  for  upon  its  exercise  not  only  is  his  own  comfort  de- 
pendent, but  in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  that  of  every  house- 
hold of  which,  in  the  course  of  his  natural  life,  he  may  be  a 
member.  The  child  who  has  had  a  lost  article  last  should  be 
made  to  look  for  it,  all  day  if  necessary." 

Miss  Harrison  says:  "One  of  the  mistakes  of  our  age  is, 
that  we  begin  by  educating  our  children's  intellects  rather  than 
their  emotions.  We  leave  these  all  powerful  factors,  which  give 
to  life  its  coloring  of  light  or  darkness,  to  the  oftentimes  insuf- 
ficient training  of  the  ordinary  family  life — insufficient,  owing  to 
its  thousand  interruptions  and  preoccupations.  The  results  are, 
that  many  children  grow  up  cold,  hard,  matter-of-fact,  with 
little  of  poetry,  sympathy,  or  ideality  to  enrich  their  lives — 
mere  Gradgrinds  in  God's  world  of  beauty.  A  child  can  be  given 
any  quantity  of  information,  he  can  be  made  to  get  his  lessons, 
he  can  even  be  crowded  through  a  series  of  examinations,  but 
that  is  not  educating  him.  Unless  his  interest  in  the  subject 
has  been  awakened,  the  process  has  been  a  failure.  Once  get 
him  thoroughly  interested,  and  he  can  educate  himself,  along 
that  line,  at  least." 

Courage,  Daring,  Fearless  Rechlessness. — He  is  adventure- 
some, he  loves  hearing  and  reading  of  such  adventures.  No 
sacrifice  for  man  or  God  will  be  too  hard  for  him  to  endure  now.. 
Give  him  work  to  do  that  demands  sacrifice,  either  in  the  home, 
or  the  town,  or  the  Church.  Give  him  tales  of  missionary  ad- 
venture to  read.  Combine  the  heroic  with  the  daring,  and  make 
him  see  the  distinction  between  the  two. 

Truant  Proclivities. — According  to  Haslett:  "Truancy  is 
closely  related  to  the  migrating  instinct.  Many  truant  proclivi- 
ties begin  at  the  eighth  or  the  ninth  year,  while  others  end  about 
that  time.  The  condition  of  the  home  life,  if  not  agreeable  and 
proper,  strengthens  the  truant  tendency.  A  moral  impairment 
is  probably  the  most  frequent  cause  of  truancy.  Well  fed  chil- 
dren are  not  so  likely  to  run  away." 

2.    Mental  Characteristics. 

Rising  Desire  for  Independence. — This  is  not  so  strong  as 


THE   STAGES   OF   DEVELOPMENT  12?) 

later,  but  the  boy  does  not  want  to  be  tied  to  hi.s  mother's  apron- 
strings.  He  has  friendships,  but  not  close  ones.  He  is  not 
chummy  yet.  Apron-strings  are  needed  badly,  but  they  must 
not  be  seen.  The  motlier  who  stands  at  the  door  on  a  Saturday 
morning,  as  her  ten-year-old  Johnny  is  leaving  with  some  com- 
panions for  a  long  walk  in  the  country,  and  shouts  out  to  him: 
"Johnny,  see  that  you  are  back  home  by  half-past  twelve,  or  you 
will  get  no  lunch,"  is  most  unwise.  John's  com])anions  are  al- 
most sure  to  say  to  him :  "Humph !  tied  to  your  mother's  apron 
strings,  eh?"  The  judicious  mother  will  have  her  quiet  talks 
with  Johnny,  give  him  advice  rather  than  reprimand,  lead  him 
and  guide  him,  but  all  behind  the  scenes,  dealing  with  him  alone, 
not  even  before  his  brothers  and  sisters.  When  he  comes  home 
from  school,  although  he  may  have  had  his  lunch  at  the  noon 
hour,  she  gives  him  a  little  bite  in  the  afternoon  and  realizes 
that  the  way  to  a  boy's  heart  is  often  through  his   stomach. 

Punishments,  especially  during  this  period,  must  be  along 
natural  lines.  Always  follow  nature's  method.  As  Miss  Harri- 
son puts  it,  "The  deed  brings  its  own  result,  and  nowhere  is 
arbitrary  unconnected  punishment  inflicted.  The  great  lesson 
of  life  is  that  no  sin  or  wrong-doing  can  be  committed  that  does 
not  bring  its  own  punislunent.  Another  great  advantage  gained 
is,  that  retributive  punishment  is  never  inflicted  in  anger.  On 
the  other  hand,  scolding,  shaking,  whipping,  shutting  up  in 
dark  closets,  and  various  other  methods  of  arbitrary  punishment, 
which  have  no  possible  connection  in  the  child's  mind  with  the 
deed,  are  apt  to  rouse  in  him  a  sense  of  injustice,  and  a  feeling 
that  the  parent  has  taken  advantage  of  her  greater  physical 
strength.  By  such  treatment  is  also  violated  one  of  the  finest 
instincts  of  the  child,  which  is  that  of  expecting  justice,  absolute 
justice,  from  its  parent.  Another  advantage  of  the  retributive 
method  of  punishment  is  that  each  deed  is  punished  or  rewarded 
upon  its  own  plane.  That  is,  material  defeats  or  conquests  bring 
spiritual  suffering  or  regard.  Whereas,  when  this  logical  method 
of  procedure  is  not  followed,  when  a  mere  arbitrary  punishment 
is  substituted,  the  mistake  is  often  made  of  rewarding  or  punish- 
ing spiritual  efforts  with  material  loss  or  gain,  thereby  degrad- 
ing and  lowering  such  efforts  in  the  child's  eyes. 

"When  a  mother  realizes  the  true  nature  of  punishment, 


l-!0  UKI.KJIOIS    KDICATIOX 

tlierc  is  never  detected  in  the  tones  of  her  voiee  what  Emerson 
calls  a  lust  of  power.  Too  often  children  hear  beneath  the  mere 
word  of  command  the  undertone  which  says,  I'll  show  you  that 
I  have  my  way.  The  farther  the  child's  self-government  is  ad- 
vanced, the  higher  his  ideals  of  riglit  and  wrong,  tlie  more  will 
he  resent  this  assertion  of  your  personal  will-power.  If  possible, 
let  the  instinct  of  justice,  which  is  within  each  child,  feel  that  the 
command  has  been  given  because  the  thing  to  be  done  is  neces- 
sary and  right.  'Unless  a  man  has  a  will  within  him,'  says 
Emerson,  'you  can  lie  him  to  nothing.'  There  is  no  wall  or  safe- 
guard which  love  can  build  around  its  ol)ject  strong  enough  and 
higli  eiiough  to  keep  away  temptation.  The  wall  must  be  within, 
or  else  sooner  or  later  the  citadel  yields  to  the  enemy. 

"Caprice  is  allowing  the  desire  of  the  moment  to  govern  the 
conduct,  regardless  of  future  consequences;  whereas  voluntary 
obedience  is  the  deed  which  is  performed  after  the  right  stages 
of  will-growth  have  been  passed  through.  First,  the  individual 
is  led  to  desire  to  do  a  thing;  second,  he  thinks  about  it;  third, 
he  wills  to  do  it ;  and  fourth,  he  voluntarily  does  it.  Compulsion 
is  the  attem])t  to  ()])tain  the  fruit  of  voluntary  doing  without  the 
planting  of  the  right  seed.  The  creating  of  the  desires  for  right 
conduct  makes  all  the  difference  between  voluntary  and  forced 
obedience. 

"T  firudy  believe,  however,  that  most  children,  when  riglitly 
trained,  can  be  brought  into  obedience  without  being  forced 
into  it.  Character  is  to  be  praised  rather  than  clothes;  effort 
which  helps  to  strengthen  the  character  rather  than  any  external 
gift  or  attraction  wliatsoever.  And  little  by  little  will  come  the 
realization  that  free-will  is  not  the  lilierty  to  do  whatever  one 
likes,  but  the  power  to  compel  one's  self  to  obey  the  laws  of  right, 
to  do  what  ought  to  be  done  in  the  very  face  of  otherwise  over- 
whelming impulse." 

As  Butler  puts  it:  "Xow  comes  the  harder  lesson  of  learn- 
ing liow  to  act  without  hurting  others.  To  have  his  own  rights 
crossed  by  the  rights  of  others  and  not  resent  it,  is  a  new  hard- 
ship. Self-control  for  self's  sake  comes  comparatively  easy,  but 
self-control  for  another's  sake  is  a  different  matter.  To  what 
can  we  appeal  for  unselfish  conduct?  To  his  conscience?  It  is 
not  yet  developed.     To  his  moral  understanding?     Tie  has  none. 


TiiK  srA(;i-:s  of  dkvklui'MENT  i:n 

'W)  his  souse  ol'  justice  to  others?  ilis  own  rights  are  dearer 
1(1  him.  Then;  is  only  one  ground  for  eU'ective  appeal:  his  littk' 
lieart  is  leudt'r  and  sympathetie;  a  wise  appeal  there  is  seldom 
made  in  vain.  Thus  can  she  transform  the  iiuTe  selfish  love  of 
the  child  into  the  heginning  of  that  spiritual  love  which  Christ 
connnended  when  lie  said:  'If  ye  love  Me,  keel)  My  comniand- 
nients.'  The  relationshi])  established  between  parent  and  child 
is  apt  to  become,  in  time,  the  relationship  between  the  soul  and 
its  (lod.    The  thought  is  a  solemn  one,  but  a  true  one. 

"Of  all  the  essentials  of  true  character  building,  there  is 
l)erliaps  none  more  important  than  this:  that  the  child  should 
learn,  through  love,  to  give  up  his  own  will  to  others:  for  the 
sake  of  others  should  learn  from  the  very  beginning  of  life  to 
submit  to  things  which  are  unpleasant  to  him.  It  would  not  be 
ditEcult  to  make  children  obey,  if  this  thought  had  been  carried 
out  from  the  beginning,  before  egotism,  self-will,  and  selfishness 
had  gotten  fast  hold  upon  the  young  heart.  'A  child  can  no 
more  be  educated  to  a  life  of  religion  and  faith  without  the  exer- 
cise of  his  personal  activity  than  heroic  deeds  can  be  accom- 
plished with  words  only.'  " 

Authority  Must  he  Respected.  How  says:  "If  children  be 
allowed  to  absorb  the  spirit  that  is  pervading  the  world  at  the 
present  day — the  spirit  of  revolt  against  all  authority — the  no- 
tion, that  is,  that  everyone  is  to  do  exactly  as  he  or  she  chooses 
— that  wall  of  itself  bring  about  a  state  of  mind  which  is  destruc- 
tive of  real  happiness.  Notions  such  as  these  are  quickly  picked 
up,  and  parents  who  themselves  set  all  rules  and  authority  at 
defiance  cannot  expect  their  children  to  submit  to  control." 

Certain  current  phases  of  life  in  our  cities  are  disquieting- 
enough,  as  they  seem  to  be  planned  almost  gratuitously,  to  show 
how  proper  laws  may  be  broken  at  the  will  of  selfish  and  incon- 
siderate peo])le — witness  any  elevated  or  subway  station  or  al- 
most any  electric  car.  Boys  think  it  mannish  to  do  these  things, 
and,  like  their  older  brothers,  take  a  certain  crude  pleasure  in 
defying  the  regulations  of  a  company  by  thus  showing  their 
spirit. 

Crudity  of  the  Sense  of  Humor.  Professor  Adams  says: 
"Another  force  in  child  nature  of  which  the  teacher  must  take 
account   is  a  crude  sense  of  luunor.     Children  are  amused  at 


132  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

things  that  in  no  way  strike  an  adult  as  funny.  They  find  in- 
congruities in  groups  of  ideas  which  are  quite  familiar  to  adults ; 
so  in  preparing  matter  for  teaching  we  must  always  carefully 
consider  whether  we  are  not  placing  together  ideas  that  to  a 
young  mind  may  appear  an  outrage  on  the  nature  of  things." 

While  this,  like  the  other  passing  traits,  will  presently 
change  for  the  better  under  normal  and  favorable  conditions,  the 
tendency  of  the  coarse  and  raw  joking  of  the  press,  and  especially 
the  Sunday  papers,  renders  the  conditions  abnormal  and  cannot 
but  have  an  evil  influence  on  the  susceptible  mind  of  the  child. 

Akin  to  this  is  the  common  disposition  of  even  cultivated 
people  to  joke  upon  all  subjects  with  little  regard  to  their  serious 
nature  or  even  their  sacredness,  doing  this  in  some  odd  corner 
of  their  mind  as  a  relaxation  and  retiring  then  with  unchanged 
thoughts  to  the  serious  work  of  life.  Not  so  the  child,  who  is 
making  up  his  theory  of  life  with  perfect  readiness  to  give  each 
idea  its  true  place,  and  must  not  be  trifled  with.  If  these  things, 
about  which  the  parents  joke,  are  not  serious  at  one  time  they 
are  not  at  another,  or  not  at  all,  and  it  is  useless  after  a  person 
has  thus  unwittingly  called  them  in  question  and  discredited 
them  for  him  to  preach  to  the  child  about  their  moral  value 
afterward. 

Dominance  of  the  Present.  The  future,  and  especially  fu- 
ture life  and  the  Infinite,  have  no  hold  on  him.  He  does  not  see 
that  far.  Light-hearted  and  full  of  play  and  fun;  attracted  by 
the  active,  not  the  contemplative,  side  of  life;  alive,  not  dead, 
in  anything,  he  is  absolutely,  yes,  indifferently,  care-free.  Noth- 
ing in  the  way  of  reputation  influences  him.  Save  for  rivalry, 
assertion  of  self,  etc.,  he  "goes  ahead  his  own  gait,"  no  matter 
what  may  be  said.     He  calls  all  activity,  fun. 

Imitativeness.  He  follows  the  Leader  in  everything.  Here 
imitation  has  changed  from  the  preceding  period.  In  the  former 
age  he  imitated  his  parents.  Now  he  imitates  his  companions, 
and  so  begins  to  change  in  his  resemblance  to  the  characteristics 
of  his  parents. 

Grouping  Age  of  Boys  and  Girls,  who  play  together 
severally,  the  sexes  separate.  This  follows  from  the  character- 
istic of  sex-repellence,  which  we  will  consider  presently. 

Gi-eat  Retentiveness  of  Memory,  during  the  years  from  eight 


T7TE   STAGES  OF   DEVELOPMENT  133 

to  ten  in  particular.  It  is  then  that  we  can  store  the  mind  with 
the  richest  gems  of  Catechism,  Creed,  Chants,  Psalms,  Scripture, 
Hymns,  Selections,  etc.  No  other  period  will  ever  prove  so 
good.  Eeason  has  not  developed.  Eeflection  is  consequently 
feeble.  Some  of  what  is  memorized  may  not  be  fully  under- 
stood; the  harvest  will  be  gleaned  later.  Lay  the  Foundations, 
towards  the  close  of  that  period,  so  firm  and  sure,  the  reasons 
for  the  Faith,  so  clear,  that  'mid  the  seething  storm  and  stress 
of  the  succeeding  age,  with  the  fires  of  questioning  and  doubt 
enkindled,  the  foundations  will  be  there,  on  which  the  subse- 
quent superstructure  of  a  reasonable  faith  will  be  upreared.  The 
best  period  for  learning  a  foreign  language  ends  before  fourteen. 
Thus  power  of  absorption  forms  the  characteristic  of  the  period, 
and  verbal  memory  is  at  its  highest  activity. 

If,  when  the  child  has  reached  the  third  grade  day  school, 
that  is  about  eight  or  eight  and  a-half  years  of  age,  we  teach  the 
Catechism  by  the  Inductive  Method,  considered  in  the  chapter 
"How  to  Plan  a  Lesson,"  we  shall  not  only  interest  him,  but 
both  teach  the  Catechism  at  an  age  when  it  will  never  be  for- 
gotten and  when  he  will  learn  it  verbatim  et  literatim  et 
•punctuatim,  and  also  gain  the  advantage  of  having  this  piece 
of  memoriter  work  out  of  the  way  and  time  left  for  additional 
]\Iemory  Gems  during  the  succeeding  years.  If  the  Memoriter 
work  be  wisely  planned  it  is  possible  with  keen  delight  to  the 
scholars  to  learn,  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fifteen,  the  Cate- 
chism, all  the  Chants  of  the  Church,  including  the  Te  Deum 
and  the  Benedicite,  about  forty  selected  hymns,  about  twenty- 
five  selected  collects,  about  twenty-five  selected  Psalms,  and  ten 
or  fifteen  special  passages  of  the  Bible,  such  as  the  Beatitudes, 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  St.  John  siv.,  the  Eternal  City,  etc. 
Under  the  former  system  the  Catechism  has  been  the  dark 
thunder-cloud  hanging  over  and  depressing  all  the  years  of  the 
Sunday  School.  There  is  a  right  and  a  wrong  way  of  teaching 
the  Catechism,  an  enjoyable  way  and  a  disagreeable  way.  It 
depends  entirely  upon  the  process  whether  we  are  in  accord 
or  no  with  the  child's  nature.  The  Catechism  taught  as  a  sys- 
tem is  deductive.  In  the  day  school  to-day  even  the  formal 
studies,  so-called,  i.e.,  grammar  and  arithmetic,  are  taught  by 
the  inductive  method.     Dr.  Butler  devotes  several  pages  to  this 


134  KKLKJIOL'S  EDUCATION 

question,  and  presents  it  in  a  way  both  concise  and  illuminating: 
"The  truth  as  it  is  held  by  tlie  adult  mind  is  not  a  simple  thing, 
but  a  complex  thing.  Jt  is  a  system  made  up  of  many  separate 
truths,  each  one  related  to  and  forming  a  definite  part  of  a  har- 
monious body  of  trutlis.  We  have  already  learned  (n)  that  the 
mind  of  a  young  child  is  incapable  of  comprehending  a  system 
of  truth,  of  any  sort;  and  also  (b)  that  many  a  separate  truth, 
presented  simply,  is  understood,  even  in  early  childhood.  Now, 
as  the  Church  Catechism  is  made  up  of  separate  truths,  and  as 
many  of  tbese  truths  are  capable  of  being  understood  in  early 
childhood,  common  sense  says:  Teach  the  child  such  separate 
truth  as  he  is  able  to  understand;  and  tlien,  when  he  is  older, 
teach  him  the  truth  he  already  knows  is  a  part  of  the  Church's 
fundamental  system  and  doctrine.  This  is  the  Churchman's 
solution  of  the  problem  presented  by  the  unchanging  nature  of 
truth,  and  the  ever-changing  nature  of  the  growing  child,  (a) 
It  will  present  trulli  topically,  i.e.,  singly,  and  separately  (not 
systenuitically,  historically,  logically,  and  theologically),  (b) 
Each  separate  truth  taugbt  will,  in  reality,  be  a  part  of  the 
Church's  system  of  Irutli.  (r)  Each  separate  truth  taught  will 
be  selected  to  meet  the  actual  needs  of  the  child  at  the  age  in 
which  it  is  taught,  (d)  The  method  of  presenting  the  truth  will 
be  decided  by  the  child's  actual  capacity,  individual  experience, 
and  spontaneous  interests." 

Desire  for  Affection.  The  boy  is  not  a  mere  animal,  how- 
ever. Among  his  Emotional  Instincts  we  note  Love  as  one  of 
the  deepest,  although  it  is  true,  as  Paolo  Lombroso  remarks,  that 
"the  child  tends  not  to  love,  but  to  be  loved,  and  exclusively 
loved,"  yet  this  love  marks  the  dawn  of  social  and  altruistic 
instincts  coming  a  little  later.  Train  Obedience  and  the  child 
comes  out  of  this  period  with  a  splendid  respect  for  authority, 
without  knowing  why.  Comparing  the  girl  with  the  boy,  we 
find  that  though  custom  nuiy  make  the  girl  slightly  more  con- 
ventional than  the  boy,  yet  the  same  traits  of  character  are  mani- 
fested. Probably  the  more  active  side,  the  heroic,  courageous 
aspects  may  be  seen  more  in  the  boy,  and  appealed  to  quicker. 
They  are  more  fond  of  pets,  because  of  this. 

We  squash  the  small  child  under  eight  almost  to  a  pulp 
or  a  jelly  fish  in  our  love  for  him,  and  we  hold  the  boy  and 


THE   STAf;KS   Ol'    DFAF.r.OI'MKNT  i:<r> 

girl,  especially  i\\v  foniicr.  of  llic  graiiiiiiar  ami  high  school 
ages  off  at  aniTs  loiigth,  wlicii  their  very  souls  are  yearning  and 
their  nerves  throhhing  I'or  demonstrations  of  affection.  This 
affection  should  never  he  shown  in  ])ul)lic,  not  even  in  one's  own 
faiiiily.  Tlu'  mollici'  who  wclcoiiics  hci'  hoy  when  he  comes  home 
from  school  with  a  gootl  hcarlv  lui^'  and  a  piece  of  cake,  will 
keep  that  l)oy"s  confulcnce  and  -iiidc  him  through  numy  a  dan- 
gerous temptation  in  lite.  We  know  of  one  wise  mother,  a 
widow,  with  only  one  son.  who  guided  that  son  during  a  period 
of  ••wild  oats"  hy  encouraging  him  to  tell  her  of  his  escapades, 
and  while  never  chiding  him.  advising  him  and  warning  him 
against  dangers  and  sin.  In  the  end  the  hoy  hecame  a  fine, 
noble,  manly  citizen.  She  would  have  had  nothing  but  disap- 
])ointment  had  she  not  adopted  this  i)lan.  Had  she  repelled  the 
bov,  sin  would  have  gone  on  just  the  same,  but  secretly,  and 
she  would  never  have  saved  him. 

Something  should  be  said  regarding  the  noise  and  disturb- 
ance created  by  children  at  this  period.  Ennis  Richmond,  in 
his  MiN'i)  or  a  (*iiii-I),  says:  *'!  have  nothing  to  say  against 
noise,  any  more  than  f  have  anything  to  say  against  kicking  or 
hitting,  l^ut  the  noise  must  be  noise  with  a  purpose,  noise  with 
a  reason,  if  it  is  not  to  be  a  source  of  deterioration  to  a  child's 
character.  Children  are  noisy  because  they  are  alive,  the  more 
alive  they  are  the  more  noisy  they  want  to  be,  and  in  this  lies 
the  necessity  for  us  to  see  that,  while  they  lose  nothing  of  their 
vitality,  they  are  learning  to  be  noisy  without  being  senseless. 
A  bov  may  "hit  as  hard  as  he  likes  when  his  bat  is  straight  and 
ho  knows  the  right  direction  to  send  the  ball;  he  may  kick  as 
hard  as  he  likes  when  he  has  learnt  the  right  elevation  for  the 
ball  and  is  in  his  right  ])lace  in  the  field;  and  a  child  may  shout 
as  loud  as  he  likes  when  such  shouting  has  meaning  behind  it. 
There  is  onlv  one  firm  foundation  for  real  obedience  of  any  kind, 
and  that  foundation  is  Trust,  and  any  other  kinds  of  obedience 
which  we  must  enforce  while  the  real  lesson  is  being  learnt  are 
only  steps  towards  the  acquiring  of  true  obedience,  that  which 
means  that  we  trust  the  dispenser  of  rule." 

The  Collecting  Instinct.  The  children  are  interested  in 
making  collections  of  flowers,  minerals,  coins,  stamps,  and  other 
curiosities.     It  is  not  difficult  to  turn  this  interest  towards  Bibli- 


136  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

cal  objects.  Competitive  games  and  contests  arouse  them;  so 
should  the  effort  to  surpass  former  Sunday  School  records 
"Fair  Play"  is  constantly  on  their  lips  in  their  games. 

The  Rise  of  Conscience.  According  to  Butler:  "He  is 
fast  discarding  the  childish  ideas,  and  credulities  of  his  early 
years;  and  in  discarding  them,  he  may  also  throw  overboard 
some  of  childhood's  unquestioning  faith.  Yet  conscience  is 
stronger  now  than  ever,  and  his  doubts  are,  in  reality,  the 
questionings  of  a  growing  mind.  He  is  thinking  his  own 
thoughts  and  creating  his  own  ideals.  He  believes  in  heroes, 
not  in  hermits.  To  him  the  conventional  saint  is  sentimental, 
or  sour-faced,  and  is  the  last  being  he  desires  to  become.  The 
religion  that  attracts  him  is  not  one  of  dogma,  but  one  of  ac- 
tivity. Its  ceremonial  and  its  ethical  energy  both  appeal  to 
him.  He  likes  a  varied  and  beautiful  service;  he  desires  rules 
of  conduct  that  are  clean-cut,  definite,  practical,  to  meet  the 
needs  of  a  boy's  week-day  temptations.  He  may  not  live  up  to 
his  own  ideals,  but  he  expects  others  to  live  up  to  theirs;  and  if 
they  do  so,  he  respects,  and  secretly  honors  them,  and  will  allow 
them,  and  them  only,  to  influence  his  life  and  conduct." 

Sex-Re pellance.  We  have  referred  to  this  before,  and  it 
is  necessary  only  to  mention  it  now  in  order  that  the  reader 
may  realize  the  necessary  separation  of  boys  and  girls  and  their 
lack  of  cooperation  in  Sunday  School  work. 

The  Need  for  Positive,  Not  Negative,  Training. 

During  this  entire  period  Substitution  should  be  used  in- 
stead of  Prohibition — positive  rather  than  the  negative  attitude. 
"Do  not  read  that  book,"  or  "You  must  avoid  that  class  of  books," 
is  to  increase  the  curiosity  of  the  average  boy  to  see  what  is  in 
them.  To  carefully  praise  a  good  book  and  tell  one  or  two  of  its 
striking  incidents,  will  excite  the  boy's  desire  to  read  it.  The  boy's 
interest  is  grasped  strongly  by  everything  that  belongs  to  the 
active  and  to  the  realistic  side  of  life.  Personal  exploits, 
biographies  of  heroic  characters,  history  presented  as  dramatiza- 
tion and  adventure,  these  all  unite  to  create  a  new  interest  in 
Bible  history  and  biography,  and,  through  connection  with 
them,  an  interest  also  in  Biblical  geography,  in  manners  and 
customs,  and  in  the  social  and  religious  life  of  the  historical 


•ITIE    STAGES  OF   ])EVELOPMENT  137 

book?.  This  saiiio  interest  extends  to  stories  of  pioneering,  ad- 
venture, and  invention,  and  calls  for  the  use  of  the  records  of 
missionary  heroism  as  material  for  instruction  in  Christian 
courage. 

The  right  Lesson  Material  is  plainly  indicated  by  the  child's 
natural  interests  and  moral  needs.  He  is  hungry  for  reality, 
he  wants  its  interest :  "Is  it  true  ?"  is  now  his  frequent  question. 
Lessons  and  illustrations  based  on  the  facts  of  natural  science 
make  a  deep  impression. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  TlIOlUJilT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  Compare  the  Physical   Cliaracteristics  of   the   ages  of   the   Kinder- 

garten and  Childhood. 

2.  What  special  Instincts  would  you  use,  and  how  ? 

3.  Compare  the  INIental  Characteristics  of  these  same  ages. 

4.  How  can  the  fact  of  a  quick  and  retentive  memory  be  used  best? 

5.  How  is  this  the  Habit- forming  age? 


CHAPTP]R  IX. 

THE   STAGES   OF    DEVELOPMENT    (Continued). 
I'Jtirli/  ( 'li  i/flh 00(1 — .  1  (lolcsccuce. 

SIMJGIOSTKD   ItlCADI.NGS. 

Adolescence,  Early  Stages: 

♦('iiii.Diioon.      Itinicii.      Index. 

KeLIGIOUS   COXDITIIIX  OF  You.xG   MiON.      Y.   M.   C.   A. 

Kki'out  of  the  Co.mmittke  op  Fiftekn.     Putnam's. 

♦The  Teaciuno  of  Bihee  Cla.s.ses.     .S'cc.     pp.  25-.S.">. 

Training  of  the  Yoin(;  in  tuk  Law.s  of  Sex.     Liittlctov. 

Tuuot'Gii   BovHooi)  TO  Manhooo.      liiclimond. 

♦Social  liAW  in  the  Spikitial  \Yoiu,i>.     .foiics.     Ideals. 

Elements  of  1'syciiologv.     Thonnlikc.     Tliinkiiifr. 

Principles  of  Psychology.     Thonulikc.     pp.   147//". 

♦Talks  with  the  Training  Class.     Slattcri/.     p.  -i;'.. 

♦On  the  Threshold.     MiDujcr.     Chap.  IX. 

Teacher  Traininij.     Jiuad-s.     pp.  .''>4-.''.(). 

♦The  Boy  I'korleji.      Forhu.'ih.      pn.  20-40. 

♦The  Child  and  the  Bible.     IlubbcU.     p.  IS. 

♦The  PsYcnioLOGY  of  Religion.     tiUtrbuvU. 

The  Spiritual  Life.     Coe. 

The  Teacher,  the  Child,  and  the  Book.     SchaiifJIcr.     p.  17(;. 

Education  and  Life.     Baker,     pp.  172/"/. 

The  Study  of  Children.      \V(inicr.     pp.   188-108. 

♦Pedagogical   Bihle   School.     Cor.     pp.    1(;.'Mt;4,    14C.-14S,    184. 

III. — Third    Period,   Youth   or   Adolescence,    12  to   18;    12-16,   Age   of 
Moral  Crisis;    16-19,  Age  of  Romance  and   Ideality. 

'I'his  entire  period  of  youtli,  from  12  to  18,  is  divided  into 
Karlj/  Adolescence  and  Middle  Adolescence;  Later  Adolescence 
is  from  18  or  19  on  to  21. 

1.    Bodily  Changes. 

//  is  the  Age  of  Awhwardness.  Tlie  hones  have  "rown 
more  rapidly  than  the  joints,  so  that  the  child  is  unable  to  bal- 
ance himself  properly  and  so  is  awkward.  He  has  not  (]:aincd 
his  new  adjustment  in  equilibrium.  He  is  so  awkward  that  he 
will  stumble  over  a  shadow  on  the  floor,  and  if  the  sliadow  is  not 
there,  he  will  imagine  it  is  there  in  order  to  stumble. 

Mrs.  Birney  remarks  that :    "A  mother  never  speaks  in  her 


TTTK   STAflES   OF   DKVEr.OPMEXT  l;J!) 

childreirs  ])resenc('  of  tlio  'awkward  ag^o,'  thereby  increasing  the 
painful  self-eonsciousness  of  that  period,nor  does  she  draw  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  fourteen-year-old  Johnnie  has  on  the  sixth 
new  necktie  in  the  course  of  two  weeks.  She  calls  him  proudly 
'my  son'  at  this  time  of  his  life,  and  with  sweet  diplomacy  ap- 
pears ali'cady  lo  lean  upon  him  and  li>  advise  with  him  concern- 
ing small  iiialici-s  thai  all'ord  the  opportunity  for  confidential 
talks.  She  wonders  if  some  of  his  twelve-year-old  brother  Paul's 
companions  are  all  they  should  be;  she  thought  she  saw  one  of 
them  covertly  handing  l*aul  a  cigarette  the  other  day;  she  hopes 
he  will  use  his  inlluence  to  convince  him  that  it  is  not  manly 
to  smoke  cigarettes  or  to  use  bad  language;  she  is  so  glad  she 
can  depend  on  him  to  set  Paul  a  good  example,  etc.  She  has 
her  quiet  chats  with  Paul,  too.  Siie  never  scolds  him  for  his 
little  assumptions  of  mannish  airs,  and  does  not  say  a  great 
deal  about  the  cigarette  e{)isode,  but  she  sees  that  when  there  is 
an  illustrated  lecture  in  the  school  he  attends,  on  the  subject : 
'Can  a  l)oy  who  has  the  <'igarette  hal)it  become  a  successful  com- 
petitor in  athletic  sports  when  he  enters  college?'  ]'aul  is  in- 
vited to  go.  Nine  chances  out  of  ten  Paul  will  respond  to  this 
appeal,  when  at  his  age  he  might  not  1)e  influenced  by  the  moral- 
ity of  the  ciuestion." 

Bodihj  Changes  PnuloiiiiiKilc  The  mysterious  change  of 
Puberty  has  come.  Manhood  and  Womanhood  are  developing. 
The  body  is  growing  with  extreme  rapiditv,  and  the  brain  not 
so  much.  The  brain  changes  are  extremely  dependent  on  the 
bodily  alterations.  By  fifteen  the  brain  stops  increasing  in  size, 
the  large  arteries  have  added  in  diameter,  the  temperature  is 
increased  almost  to  a  fever  heat,  the  voice  changes,  the  height 
of  the  body  is  increased.  The  child  requires  more  sleep,  and 
more  rest,  and  more  food,  and  generally  he  is  getting  less  rest, 
and  less  sleep,  and  less  food.  The  most  careful  and  loving 
watch-care  should  now  be  given,  and  right  instruction  imparted 
as  to  the  laws  of  purity,  morality,  and  health.  AVithout  any 
doubt  the  position  taken  by  the  L.vdies'  Home  Jotknwl  is  cor- 
rect regarding  the  necessity  for  full  information  on  the  part  of 
parents  and  teachers.  Tlie  only  criticism  has  been  that  the 
Journal  did  not  dare  to  speak  ])lainly  enough  to  a  mixed  audi- 
ence.    This  question,  however,  is  to-day  one  of  the  most  serious 


140  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

that  is  confronting  our  Nation.  Those  things  that  are  of  the 
utmost  concern  to  life,  and  health,  and  happiness;  those  things 
that  ought  to  be  the  purest  and  sweetest  and  the  truest;  that 
knowledge  which  in  itself,  rightly  given,  will  do  the  utmost 
good  and  will  never  do  harm,  has  been  entirely  omitted  from  the 
education  of  our  public  schools;  has  been  entirely  overlooked  by 
parents  and  teachers,  and  has  been  left  to  the  ignorant,  wrong- 
minded  information  derived  from  chums,  because,  as  we  shall 
show  later  on,  this  age  of  adolescence,  when  the  bodily  passions 
are  at  a  fever  heat,  is  the  age  of  close,  chummy  friendship.  The 
boys  and  girls  confide  only  in  their  chums.  Oh,  if  parents  but 
knew  the  infinite  harm  that  is  done  by  ignorance,  they  would 
never  hesitate  on  this  matter ! 

One  of  our  leading  Church  papers  had  an  editorial  upon 
this  important  topic  a  short  time  ago.  It  said :  "It  is  easier 
and  more  pleasant  for  us  to  close  our  eyes  to  the  pressing  need 
for  teaching  our  children  plainly  the  things  that  make  for  per- 
sonal purity  than  to  warn  them  against  those  things  that  would 
violate  it.  Not  only  is  ignorance  of  vice  no  protection  against 
it,  but  it  is  positively  a  menace  to  the  purity  of  a  child  or  a 
young  adult.  A  committee  of  the  diocese  of  Massachusetts  pre- 
sented a  careful  report  on  the  subject  to  the  recent  convention 
of  that  diocese. 

"'We  call  upon  parents,'  said  the  committee,  '^to  feel  tlieir 
sacred  responsibility  for  judicious  instruction  of  children  as  to 
sex  and  the  relation  of  personal  purity  to  health  and  happiness. 
Mothers  especially  should  instruct  their  daughters,  for  young 
women  are  strangely  ignorant  in  these  matters.  They  should 
tell  their  daughters  the  fearful  risk  they  undergo  if  they  marry 
men  who  have  led  immoral  lives.  Parents  should  know  the 
companions  of  their  children,  and  especially  the  young  men  with 
whom  their  daughters  are  acquainted.  A  serious  responsibility 
rests  upon  the  Church.  Clergymen  should  teach  positively  the 
glory  of  purity.  They  should  insist  upon  a  single  standard  for 
men  and  women  and  urge  the  reformation  of  the  social  code  in 
this  respect.  The  ambitious  standards  of  social  life  and  the  in- 
creased cost  of  living  are  largely  responsible  for  the  postpone- 
ment of  marriages;  and  late  marriages  are  in  part  answerable 
for  immoralitv.     The  average  age  of  the  first  marriage  of  men 


THE  STACKS  OK  DKVKLOPMKNT  141 

has  within  a  century  changed  from  twenty-two  years  to  twenty- 
seven  years.  Public  sentiment  should  honor  young  people  who 
are  willing  to  endure  comparative  hardship  and  privation  to 
establish  a  home.' " 

Of  course  this  topic  should  be  handled  with  care,  and 
unnecessary  information  should  be  withheld,  but  the  amount  that 
is  needed  at  that  time  should  be  given  to  the  fullest.  Such  a 
wise  and  cautious  writer  as  the  Eev.  Henry  Van  Dyke  has  writ- 
ten these  burning  words:  "I  believe  that  children  should  be 
very  simply  instructed  in  regard  to  the  meaning  of  the  relation 
of  sex.  The  precise  age  must  depend  upon  the  development  and 
character  of  the  child.  In  normal  circumstances  a  boy  should 
be  instructed  by  his  father,  a  girl  by  her  mother.  The  instruc- 
tion should  be  put  on  the  plainest  and  most  solid  religious  and 
moral  ground.  It  should  be  given  with  earnestness  and  affec- 
tion, and,  having  been  given  once,  it  should  not  be  repeated,  but 
left  to  do  its  work,  enforced  by  example  rather  than  by  precept. 

"I  do  not  believe  in  teaching  the  details  of  anatomy  and 
physiology  to  children,  or  in  giving  them  any  information  or 
advice,  even  with  the  highest  moral  purpose,  which  shall  direct 
their  attention  constantly,  or  even  frequently,  to  the  relation  of 
sex.  Human  nature  being  constituted  as  it  is,  such  attention 
often  produces  the  most  disastrous  effects  in  the  way  of  morbid 
and  abnormal  development. 

"Much  of  the  trouble  in  our  modern  civilized  life  comes 
from  our  false  and  unnatural  way  of  living.  Children  get  too 
little  fresh  air,  sunlight,  cold  water,  and  healthy  exercise;  and 
too  much  unwholesome  food,  both  for  the  body  and  for  the  mind. 
We  need  a  more  sane  and  hygienic  life,  and,  above  all,  we  need 
to  get  back  to  the  old-fashioned  idea  that  purity  of  life  is  de- 
manded by  God,  and  is  a  duty  that  we  owe  to  Him,  as  well  as  the 
crown  of  a  noble  manhood  and  womanhood.  It  is  a  great  mis- 
fortune that  we  have  drifted  away  from  this,  and  that  children 
are  growing  up  without  a  knowledge  of  the  truth  that  God  will 
surely  punish  uncleanness.'' 

It  is  significant  that  the  Et.  Rev.  A.  F.  Winnington-Ingram, 
Bishop  of  London,  has  said  (quoted  from  the  Ladies''  Home 
Journal  of  May,  1908)  :  "I  am  now  convinced  that  the  uplift- 
ing of  the  morality  of  our  people  lies,  above  all  and  everything 


142  l^ELUilOrS  EUUCATION 

else,  in  educating  the  children  rationally  and  morally.  I  helieve 
that  more  evil  has  heen  done  hy  the  scjueamishness  of  parents 
who  are  afraid  to  instruct  their  children  in  the  vital  facts  of  life, 
than  b}^  all  the  other  agencies  of  vice  put  together.  I  am  deter- 
mined to  overcome  this  obstacle  to  our  national  morality.  I  have 
not  the  slightest  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  right  way  has  been 
found  at  last.  Thousands  of  men  have  asked  me  why  they  were 
not  taught  tlic  danger  of  vice  in  their  youth,  and  I  have  had 
no  reply  to  make  to  them.  1  intend  now,  with  (lod's  help,  to 
remove  this  reproach  from  our  land."' 

The  Journal  goes  on  to  add:  "After  the  Bishop  got  home 
he  grouped  around  him  a  company  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  and  women  of  iMighmd :  the  venerable  Archbishop  of  York; 
the  Bishops  of  Ki])on,  Southwark,  Durham,  and  Hereford;  the 
Dean  of  Canterbury;  Canon  Scott  lloUand  of  Saint  Paul's 
Cathedral;  the  Honorable  E.  Lyttleton,  headmaster  of  Eton, 
the  great  English  school;  such  foremost  Nonconformist  clergy- 
men of  England  as  the  lieverends  Thomas  Spurgeon,  F.  B. 
j\Ieyer,  John  Clifford,  R.  J.  Campbell;  such  laymen,  famed  for 
philanthropy  and  wealth,  as  Ceorge  Cadbury,  W.  T.  Stead, 
Grattan  Guinness,  and  before  these  men  of  influence  he  laid  his 
conviction  that  the  root  of  the  'social  evil'  lay  in  this  so-called 
'parental  modesty,'  and  that  in  the  quickening  of  the  parental 
conscience  lay  the  remedy  for  the  lifting  up  of  England's  moral 
tone,  which  has  for  so  long  been  the  despair  of  England's  fore- 
most men.  The  Bishop  offered  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  a 
great  moral  crusade,  the  like  of  which  has  never  before  been  seen 
in  England,  and  point  out  to  every  father  and  mother  that  the 
future  moral  welfare  of  the  United  Kingdom  rested  in  doing 
away  with  the  present  false  modesty,  and  in  the  frank  and  honest 
instruction  of  their  children. 

"More  than  one  hundred  meetings  in  London  alone  have 
been  arranged  for,  in  addition  to  several  hundreds  of  meetings  in 
every  town  and  village  in  tlic  kingdom  :  |)amphlets  are  being  pre- 
pared and  will  be  distributed  by  tlie  million;  the  headmaster  of 
every  great  college  and  school  will  take  a  personal  part;  a  special 
periodical,  called  Prevkntiox,  will  be  issued  and  distributed  to 
every  parent  in  England.  And  at  the  head  and  in  the  midst  of 
this    wonderfully    well-conceived    and    far-reaching    movement 


rill';  sTA(;i';s  of  I)K\  kloi'.mknt  143 

stands  llie  Bishop  of  Luiuloii,  ullci-iii^  llic  woi-ds  alxnt'  ([uolcd 
as  the  slogan  for  tho  c-ainpaiiiii  upon  wliicli  he  has  ciUcred  for 
the  good  of  Knghmd,  and  also  these  further  woi-ds:  'TJiere  shall 
be  plain  talking,"  says  the  Bisho[)  of  London;  'the  time  has 
gone  hy  for  wliispei-s  and  |)araphrases.  Uoys  and  girls  must  he 
told  what  these  vital  faets  oi'  life  mean,  ami  they  must  be  given 
the  proper  knowledge  of  their  bodies  and  the  proper  care  of  them. 
]S\)  abstractions — the  only  way  now  is  to  be  frank,  man  to  man.' "' 

luery  me(lieal  journal  is  hammering  away  to-day  at  the 
Christian  j)hysieiaii  to  do  his  duty  in  urging  upon  parents  and 
Church  teachers  their  obligation  to  give  right  knowledge  and 
warning.  I)i-.  J.  11.  Carstens  of  Detroit  writes:  "illegitimacy 
can  be  })revented  oidy  by  education  and  the  development  of  self- 
control  in  the  young.  Naturally,  it  is  a  slow  process  so  to  edu- 
cate and  train  the  masses  that  illegitimacy  shall  cease.  The 
home  ti'aining,  it  seems  to  me,  is  where  the  trouble  lies  at  pres- 
ent. The  father  does  not  explain  to  his  sons,  nor  the  mother  to 
her  daughters,  the  secrets  of  reproduction,  and  the  result  is  they 
learn  it  from  some  ignoi-ant  person,  and  sexual  thoughts  are 
given  a  vicious  dirt'ction.  They  hear  from  others  still  more  and 
are  coaxed  and  urged  to  ])ractise  the  sexual  act,  and  thus  easily 
fall  by  the  wayside.  If  the  mother  would  explain  the  physiologic 
process  to  her  daughter,  there  would  be  very  little  illegitimacy." 

]\Iany  of  the  parishes  are  providing  lectures  by  Christian 
physicians  to  boys  and  girls  of  the  adolescence  period,  separately, 
on  the  physiology  and  hygiene  of  life.  A  special  course  is  fur- 
nished for  the  Sunday  School  of  St.  .\gnes'  Chapel,  New  York, 
and  it  is  not  infrequent  in  other  parishes.  Many  parents  and 
teachers  ask  for  books  of  guidance  for  themselves.  ]\rost  of  the 
books  advertised  for  this  purpose  are  more  harmful  than  help- 
ful, but  there  are  a  few,  which  we  note  below,  that  will  stand 
the  fullest  test  and  do  much  good.  Among  them  are  Ennis 
Richmond's  Through  Boyjiooi:)  to  ^[axhood,  and  the  Eev. 
E.  Lyttleton's  Tut:  Tkaining  of  the  Young  ix  thI':  Laws  of 
Sex.  The  Vir  Series,  known  as  the  Self  and  Sex  Series,  are 
standard  books  and  perfectly  safe.  There  are  four  series  for 
males  and  four  for  females,  the  former  being  written  bv  the  Eev. 
Sylvanus  Stall,  and  the  latter  by  Dr.  :\Iary  Wood  Allen.  They 
are  What  a  Young  Boy  Ought  to  Know;  What  a  Young 


144  RELIcaOUS  EDUCATION 

Man  Ought  to  Know;  What  a  Young  Husband  Ought  to 
Know  ;  What  a  Man  of  Forty-five  Ought  to  Know,  and  the 
corresiioncling  series  for  girls.  They  can  be  put  into  the  hands 
of  the  purcst-ininded  girls  without  ever  a  blush.  In  fact  this 
entire  subject  ought  to  be  treated  from  absolutely  common 
sense  standpoints,  and  not  as  if  it  were  a  forbidden  and  prudish 
subject.  Certain  it  is  tluit  almost  the  most  dangerous  and  most 
active  part  of  our  youthful  growing  nature  should  not  be  passed 
iinnoticed  by  parciits  and  teachers.  The  harm  lies  from  knowl- 
edge gained  from  unwise  companions. 

Forbush  puts  it  as  follows :  "The  sexual  passion  expires 
after  a  protracted  reign ;  but  it  is  well  known  that  its  peculiar 
manifestations  in  a  given  individual  depend  almost  entirely 
on  the  habits  he  may  form  during  the  early  period  of  its  activity. 
Exposure  to  bad  company  then  makes  him  a  loose  liver  all  his 
days ;  chastity  kept  at  first  makes  the  same  easy  later  on." 

Sex-Attraciion  is  substituted  for  Indifference.  He  should 
be  trained  in  courteous,  well-bred,  high-minded,  pure,  noble  re- 
spect and  worship.  "Idealism"  is  a  good  term.  Polished  man- 
ners may  be  a  veneer,  covering  vulgarity  and  low  thought;  but 
high-minded  Idealism  is  inspiring.  The  Social  Nature  now 
turns  to  close,  intimate  friendship  in  the  same  sex — Chums, 
we  call  them. 

We  pointed  out  previously  that  up  to  the  age  of  eight  they 
are  sex-indifferent;  that  from  eight  to  twelve  they  are  sex- 
repellant;  but  from  twelve  years  on  they  are  sex-attracted,  the 
boys  casting  "sheep's  eyes"  at  the  girls,  and  the  girls  casting 
"sheep's  eyes"  at  the  boys.  Nature  intended  them  to  be  to- 
gether; we  separate  them  in  school  in  order  to  get  any  study 
done  at  all,  but  there  is  every  reason  that  the  home  and  the 
Church  should  provide  for  social  intercourse,  for  the  building  up 
of  manners  and  etiquette,  and  for  the  cultivation  of  courtesy 
and  chivalry,  for  the  high  ideals  and  noble  inspiration  that 
should  characterize  one's  attitude  towards  the  other  sex.  This 
politeness  should  not  be  veneer,  but  should  go  down  to  the 
utmost  depths  of  our  nature.  A  gentleman  is  a  gentleman  at 
heart,  not  merely  one  trained  in  outward  manners.  Teach  the 
young  man  to  place  the  girl,  whom  he  adores  with  that  youthful 
but  innocuous  "puppy-love,"  upon  such  a  lofty  pedestal  of  ideal- 


THE   STACJES   UE   DEVELOi'.MENT  14r. 

isjii  that  wrong  thoughts  of  her  arc  impossible.  Let  tlie  young 
girl  dream  of  her  "Prince  Charming,"  but  let  that  Prince 
Charming  be  the  true  prince  in  heart  and  life  and  principles. 
"Next  to  God,  in  the  eyes  of  a  young  man,  is  the  woman  in  whom 
he  believes."  If  parents  and  teachers  in  the  Church  do  not 
teach  young  women  absolutely  to  respect  themselves  and  hold 
high  ideals,  our  young  men  cannot  help  but  be  dragged  down. 
The  lady  who  permits  her  escort  at  the  after-theatre  restaurant 
to  puff  cigarette  smoke  across  the  table,  without  any  doubt 
lowers  the  ideal.  If  the  home  and  the  Church  are  open  to  our 
young  people  of  both  sexes,  in  social  gatherings,  and  if  the  lead- 
ers are  truly  virtuous,  dignified,  and  gentle,  right  ideals  and 
high  motives  can  be  inculcated  and  "set"  into  habits.  Talking 
and  teaching  and  reading  will  never  do  it  alone. 

Mrs.  Birney  say :  "There  is  no  neutral  ground,  no  standing 
still  during  this  period  of  adolescence;  it  is  growth,  expansion, 
assimilation,  mental,  moral,  and  physical.  The  active  mind 
must  be  nourished  with  proper  ideals  or  it  will  assimilate  the 
ignoble;  the  body  must  have  abundant  exercise  or  the  force 
which  craves  expression  will  turn  inward  and  prey  upon  itself, 
while  morbid  questionings  and  conditions  will  arise  which  will 
undermine  the  constitution  and  eventually  lead  to  disease  and 
premature  decay  of  all  the  faculties.  To  be  kept  healthy  and 
busy  amid  cheerful  surroundings  is  the  best  antidote  to  the 
abnormal  tendencies  so  prevalent  in  boys  and  girls  of  this  age." 
The  Novel  in  the  Age  of  Romance.  President  Butler,  in 
one  of  his  class  lectures,  dealing  with  the  fondness  of  the  adoles- 
cent for  the  romantic  and  sentimental,  stated  that  in  his  opinion 
it  was  wise  to  curb  rather  than  to  feed  these  over-urgent  passions 
at  this  time,  at  least  before  sixteen  or  seventeen.  At  this  time 
the  child  needs  the  guiding  and  subduing  influence,  rather  than 
to  have  his  imagination  fed  by  wild  day-dreams  and  air-castles 
of  romanticism.  Day-dreaming  and  air-castles  are  needed,  as 
we  shall  show  later,  but  not  along  these  lines  of  unreality,  and 
so  he  urges  that  the  novel  be  kept  from  our  young  people,  and 
that  in  its  place  be  given  books  of  biography  and  travel  and 
heroism,  all  of  which  are  possible  of  realization.  If  the  novel 
were  true  to  life,  it  would  perhaps  not  be  so  dangerous;  but  it  is 
not.     Every  novel  ends  one  way,  at  least  if  it  is  to  have  a  sale — 


146  i;i:iJ(;i()L,s  edlcation 

'"tlien  (hey  niaiTied  and  were  happy  ever  after."  Moreover,  tlie 
]i()vc'I  of  to-day  is  not  what  it  was  a  single  generation  ago.  A 
quotation  from  the  London  Tklkgraph  of  recent  date  says:  "It 
is  common  knowledge  with  everyone  who  reads  books  tliat  during 
the  last  generation  llic  English  novel  has  steadily  claimed  a 
greater  freedoiij.  Subjects  are  now  dealt  with  at  which  the  mid- 
Victorians  would  have  hid  their  faces.  There  is  a  realistic  treat- 
ment and  a  frankness  of  language  concerning  nuitters  of  sex, 
which  the  last  three-quarters  of  the  nineteenth  century  would 
not  tolerate.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  we  have  not  advanced. 
We  have  gone  back. 

"It  is  not  a  new  art,  hut  old,  iliat  has  no  reticence.  A 
Idealistic  picture  of  physical  passion,  a  frank  naturalism  in  style, 
belongs  as  much  to  the  centuries  of  Defoe  and  Smollett  as  to 
our  own.  This  is  not  to  say  it  is  bad.  Thackeray  deliberately 
regretted  the  eighleenlh  century  freedom.  Since  the  time  of 
Fielding,  he  complained,  no  writer  had  been  permitted  to  the 
fulness  of  his  power  to  ])ortray  man.  We  have  now  come  to  a 
time  where  there  are  no  limitations. 

"Those  who  for  their  sins  have  to  maintain  a  careful  survey 
of  the  constant  stream  of  ephemeral  novels  are  well  aware  of  the 
growth  of  a  class  whicli,  not  to  mince  words,  must  be  called 
salacious.  Each  season  now  sees  a  numl)er  of  books  for  which 
the  most  kindly  critic  in  the  world  can  find  no  raisoii  d'etre  but 
their  impropriety.  Absurd  in  plot,  wooden  in  character,  and 
ignorant  in  style,  their  sensual  descriptions  provide  them  a  pop- 
ularity." 

2.    Mkxtal  Cija.\(;es. 

Self -Consciousness  and  Sensitiveness  are  painfully  evident. 
Personal  care  of  dress  and  appearance  shows  itself.  Pride  as- 
sumes a  high  place.  Ideals  of  dress  are  lived  up  to  most  fas- 
tidiously. Miss  Uhl  tells  the  story  of  giving  a  cheap  scarf-pin 
one  Christmas  to  a  youth  in  her  class  in  St.  George's,  Xew  York. 
The  ne.xt  Sunday  he  came,  wearing  it  in  a  soiled  cravat,  but  with 
his  hair  better  brushed  and  his  shoes  shined.  The  succeeding 
week,  the  tie  containing  the  pin  was  spotless;  ne.xt  the  clothing 
was  more  neat,  the  hands  and  nails  immaculate.  Other  im- 
provements in  dress  and  manners  followed.     Miss  Uhl  declares, 


Tllh:    STACKS    OK    l)i:\KL(  )I'.M  i;.\  T  147 

"It  look  just  one  year  to  li\c  up  lo  llic  ideal  of  lha(  Searf-piu." 
liul    it   was  W01II1  wliiK'. 

A(/c  of  Ideals.  Lol'ty  aspirations  utti'act  and  hold.  De- 
sires to  do  soniethini;-  in  sacrifice  and  devotion — enter  the  j\lin- 
istiT,  Church  Work,  eic. — appeal  strongly.  The  altruistic  fecl- 
iniis  of  hunumity  take  hold  on  liini.  Di's.  Starhuck  and  Coe 
have  made  minute  searches  as  to  the  appearance  and  power  of 
such  altruistic  ho])es  and  ideals,  'i'he  lad  is  full  of  day-dreams 
and  plans.  We  see  him  follow  Jdeals  as  fads  and  fancies,  hold- 
ing- staunchly  to  each  one  for  a  short  time,  and  then  dropping  it 
for  another. 

Day-dreaming  nuiy  he  carried  too  far,  yet  we  must  let  the 
))ei"soii  see  the  castle  ahead,  as  in  Cole's  picture  of  Youth  on  the 
\'oyage  of  Life,  if  we  expect  achievement,  we  must  rememher 
Joel's  ideal  of  jjcoph'  in  the  Age  of  Prosperity  when  he  says, 
'*Your  young  men  shall  see  visions."  "Ideals,"  says  Professor 
Jones,  '*are  the  most  wonderful  things  in  the  world."  They  cor- 
respond to  the  apple  in  front  of  the  horse's  nose.  Ideals  are 
never  realized,  for  when  an  ideal  is  realized,  it  ceases  to  he  an 
ideal  and  hecomes  a  fact.  An  ideal  is  the  vis-a-fronie — the  force 
from  in  fi-ont.  We  ])ut  it  tersely  in  the  earlier  part  of  tin's 
book  by  saying  that  before  the  age  of  eight  the  child  is  ruled 
by  the  vis-a-tergo.  by  the  force  from  behind,  usually  the  slip])er ; 
that  from  eight  to  twelve  he  was  guided  by  the  ris  infpntiis, 
the  force  from  within,  his  own  impulses  and  desires;  that  from 
twelve  years  on  his  mainspring  was  the  vis-a-frontr.  the  ideals 
and  visions  ahead.  This  is  what  ]\frs.  Birnev  urges  uj)on 
])arents  in  the  inculcation  of  ideals  of  citizenship,  so  important 
to  the  welfare  of  our  nation:  "The  same  thing  a])])lies  in  the 
boy's  education  as  a  citizen;  he  should  be  trained  to  feel  a  sense 
of  duty  toward  the  community  in  which  he  lives  and  an  active 
interest  in  all  that  concerns  its  welfare.  The  boy  who  can  be 
roused  to  righteous  indignation  over  defective  or  insufBcient 
water  supply,  bad  pavements,  poorly  lighted  streets,  and  other 
municipal  discomforts  and  menaces  to  health,  w'ill,  ninety-nine 
times  out  of  a  hundred,  be  a  public-spirited,  useful  citizen  when 
he  reaches  manhood.  I  know  a  mother  who  never  fails  to  call 
her  son's  attention  to  every  municipal  defect,  and  who  always 
ends  bv  saving,  'Well,  I  shall  certainly  be  thankful  when  vou 


148  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

can  vote,  for  I  am  sure  you  will  do  all  you  can  to  make  things 
better.'  This  particular  boy  is  only  eleven  years  old,  but  he  is 
already  at  heart  an  earnest,  upright  citizen.  There  are  parents 
who  spend  many  unhappy  hours  worrying  about  their  sons, 
when  they  should  be  studying  them,  and  strengthening  by  every 
means  at  their  command  the  ties  between  them." 

Reasoning  and  Developing  Reasoning  is  Seen  Now.  Cause 
and  effect  are  grasped.  Analysis  and  Synthesis  combine.  A 
new  world  is  opening,  and  the  long  vista  of  Investigation  and 
Inquiry  dawns  before  him.  Things  and  persons  will  be  loved 
for  a  time,  then  doubted  and  dropped.  Questioning  the  founda- 
tions, reasoning,  "Why?"  will  be  uppermost  in  everything.  The 
Youth  may  appear  fickle  and  fanciful.  Life  grows  larger,  past 
ideas  are  insufficient.  Let  us  see  how  this  works  out  according 
to  the  psychology  of  our  previous  study.  The  child  now  sees 
cause  and  effect,  because  he  sees  relations,  because  he  compares 
events.  He  has  formerly  taken  his  knowledge  as  unrelated 
facts,  and  now  he  relates  those  facts  and  weaves  them  into  a 
system.  In  the  early  stage,  the  thinking  process  was  synthesis, 
and  then  analysis.  Now  it  is  synthesis,  analysis,  and  re-synthesis. 
Formerly  he  cut  the  stones  of  his  mosaic  pattern,  now  he  ar- 
ranges them  together  to  form  the  pattern.  Now  he  can  handle 
the  abstract  thoughts  and  think  without  images  or  pictures. 

Thorndike,  in  his  Elements  of  Psychology^  illustrates 
this:  "The  bulk  of  our  thinking  is  in  fact  not  concerned  with 
direct  feelings  of  things,  but  with  mere  references  to  them.  We 
can  do  hundreds  of  examples  about  dollars  and  cents  and  hours, 
about  feet  of  carpet  and  pounds  of  sugar,  with  never  a  percept 
of  real  money  or  carpets  and  with  few  or  no  mental  pictures  of 
the  sight  of  coins  or  the  taste  of  sugar.  We  can  argue  about 
the  climate  of  a  country  with  few  or  no  mental  pictures  of  black 
skies,  drenched  skins,  of  muddy  soil.  It  is  sufficient  for  our 
purposes  if  we  feel  that  the  words  or  other  symbols  in  which 
we  think  stand  for  or  represent  or  refer  to  the  real  things." 
Adding,  in  his  Principles  of  Teaching:  "The  processes  of 
judging  facts,  reasoning,  following  an  argument  and  reaching 
conclusions  are  the  same  processes  of  association  and  dissociation 
as  are  found  in  all  learning;  the  difference  is  that  there  is  active 
selection  within  the  present  thought  of  some   part  or   aspect 


THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  149 

which  consequently  determines  the  next  thought,  and  selection 
again  amongst  the  sequent  thoughts,  retaining  one  and  discard- 
ing others.  The  laws  of  rational  thought  are,  however,  the  gen- 
eral laws  of  association  and  dissociation,  but  with  predominance 
of  the  law  of  partial  activity.  The  principles  of  teaching  in 
the  case  of  response  of  comprehension,  inference,  invention,  and 
the  like  are  the  principles  of  apperception,  habit  formation,  and 
analysis;  but  special  importance  now  attaches  to  principles  de- 
rived from  the  fact  that  (1)  the  total  set  or  context  or  system 
of  thought,  and  (3)  any  single  feature  of  a  thought,  as  well  as 
the  particular  thing  thought  of,  may  decide  the  future  course  of 
thinking.  The  principles  thus  derived  are:  (1)  Arouse  in  the 
pupil's  mind  the  system  of  ideas  and  connection  relevant  to  the 
work  in  hand.  (2)  Lead  him  to  examine  each  fact  he  thinks 
of  in  the  light  of  the  aim  of  that  work  and  to  focus  attention 
on  the  element  of  the  fact  which  is  essential  to  his  aim.  (3) 
Insist  that  he  test  whether  or  not  it  is  the  essential  by  making 
sure  that  it  leads  on  to  the  goal  aimed  at  and  by  the  logical  step 
of  verification,  by  comparing  the  conclusions  to  which  it  leads 
with  known  facts." 

Miss  Harrison  adds:  "In  fact  we  have  not  reached  the 
really  rational  view  of  anything  until  we  see  that  all  things  are 
connected;  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  isolation.  It  has 
been  well  said,  'most  of  the  world  is  asleep  because  it  has  been 
taught  facts  alone.'  It  is  because  we  fail  to  see  continuity  that 
we  fail  to  comprehend  life.  Cod  is  eternal,  everlasting,  ever- 
present;  therefore  all  His  creation  must  reflect  Him — must  be 
without  isolations."' 

Storm  and  Stress  Period.  When  puberty  has  well  advanced 
the  bodily  and  mental  changes  send  the  Youth  through  a  fiery, 
seething  furnace  of  unrest,  of  questioning  old  faiths,  of  realiza- 
tion of  sin,  doubt  and  anxiety,  both  of  his  religious  faith  and 
its  verity,  and  of  his  own  salvation.  Conscience  is  acting  vig- 
ously,  and  it  drives  the  youth  to  personal  investigation.  He 
devours  infidel  and  even  atheistic  books.  He  is  an  object  of 
solicitude  to  home  and  Church,  who  imagine  he  is  wandering 
into  irreligion  and  godlessness.  Never  mind !  Starbuck's  fig- 
ures prove  that  not  more  than  5  per  cent,  (a  mere  fraction)  ever 
drift  permanently  away  at  this  time.     Almost  all  come  back  to 


150  RELTGIOUS  EDUCATION 

the  I'old,  witli  faith  better  grounded  for  the  proving  and  test- 
ing. They  remain  steadfast  forever  then,  or  are  overturned  in 
the  second  ujjheaval,  tliat  often  ensues  in  the  Later  Adolescence 
or  Early  Manhood. 

According  to  Mr.  Barnes,  tliis  somewhat  skeptical  age 
(twelve  to  fifteen)  is  followed  by  a  period  of  diminished  criti- 
cal activity  in  religious  cpiestions.  "One  cannot  help  feeling," 
he  says,  "that  they  (the  children  just  ])ast  fifteen)  have  accepted 
an  abstraction  and  a  name  and  have,  temporarily  at  least,  laid 
the  questions  which  perplexed  them  aside.  Certainly  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen  there  is  no  such  persistent  exercise  of  the 
critical  judgment  in  matters  tiieological  as  there  is  hetween 
twelve  and  fifteen." 

In  speaking  of  the  Development  of  Belief  in  Youth,  Pratt 
says:  "Certainly  for  many  men  the  great  wave  of  doubt  comes 
at  about  eighteen,  and  for  many  women  about  two  years  earlier. 
The  two  great  causes  or  occasions  for  a(h)lescent  skepticism  are, 
first,  an  inherent,  ahnost  instinctive,  tendency  to  doubt,  a  nat- 
ural rebellion  against  authority  of  all  kinds,  a  declaration  of 
independence  on  the  ])art  of  the  youth;  and  secondly,  and  much 
more  important,  the  reaction  of  the  young  reason  upon  the  new 
facts  put  before  it  for  the  first  time.  It  comes  upon  the  young 
man  with  an  overwhelming  surprise  that  the  beliefs  upon  which 
he  has  been  brought  up,  and  which  have  been  inculcated  in  him 
as  the  very  surest  and  most  unshakable  verities  of  life,  are  after 
all  based  on  such  very  uncertain  foundations  and  bolstered  up 
by  such  exceedingly  flimsy  arguments.  For  so  the  newly 
awakened  young  man  regards  these  arguments.  There  is  no 
time  in  a  man's  life  when  his  reason  is  so  unflinchingly  logical, 
so  careless  of  consequences,  so  intolerant  of  make-believe."  And 
since  it  is  the  age  of  doubt  it  should  be  met  with  the  utmost 
sympathy  and  given  the  fullest  consideration.  There  should  not 
be  an  attitude  of  reproach.     Our  religion  will  bear  investigation. 

Miss  Slattery  puts  it  thus :  "I  do  not  believe  one  should  lead 
them  to  express  their  doubts,  but  when  they  do,  may  God  give 
us  the  wisdom  we  need  more  than  at  any  other  time  in  our 
work.  The  phrase  'I  don't  believe'  more  often  means,  'I  cannot 
understand,'  and  T  know  from  experience  that  it  is  possible  to 
make  them  feel  that  it  is  the  inability  to  understand  which 


TiiK  sTA{;i:s  OF  i)i:\i:i.()1'.mi:nt  \'>\ 

leaves  tlicni  so  pcrpluxud.  Tlicy  are  not  wicked  doublets,  these 
questioning  young  people  of  ours.  They  are  striving  to  reason 
(Mit  answers.  The  only  person  who  never  questions  is  the  one 
who  never  thinks.  1  have  had  girls  and  boys  in  their  later  teens 
irll  nil'  lliat  they  'don't  believe  in  anything,  not  even  that  there 
is  a  Liud.'  'W  there  is,'  they  say,  'why  does  lie  let  such  things 
happen?'  Well,  1  have  met  that  question  and  answered  it  for 
myself;  all  1  can  do  is  to  give  them  my  answer.  I  have  found 
that,  if  wisely  treated,  they  almost  always  return  to  a  larger  and 
better  faith  when  the  period  of  doubt  is  over.  It  can  be  made  a 
short  period  for  many  of  them,  if  we  can  lead  them  to  sec  the 
marvellous  power  of  Almighty  God  whom  they  question,  flow 
impossible  it  is  for  the  human  mind  to  understand  the  great 
problems  they  arc  attempting  to  solve,  and  yet  the  mind  must 
ever  seek  to  solve  them. 

"•'The  main  thing  it  seems  to  me  is  to  rol)  doubt  of  its  heroic 
element  by  not  treating  it  as  wicked.  Then  we  can  help  them 
as  best  we  may  to  reach  conclusions  which  shall  in  a  measure 
satisfy.  Let  us  remember  that  the  best,  and  highest  reasoning 
never  leads  to  final  disbelief.  The  reason  seeks  the  positive  al- 
ways rather  than  the  negative.  Personally,  I  am  not  as  anxious 
about  these  young  people  as  I  am  about  those  who  say,  'There  is 
a  God;  all  you  teach  is  true,'  and  then  live  as  if  there  were  no 
God  and  none  of  it  were  true." 

The  Sunday  School  is  no  place  to  drag  in  mooted  questions 
of  criticism,  but  it  is  the  place  to  settle  doubts  when  they  arise, 
and  a  doubt  should  never  be  allowed  to  linger  and  lui'k  unan- 
swered. As  we  state  in  the  chapter  on  The  Teacher,  when  a 
pupil  comes  with  a  query  during  this  Age  of  Doubt,  answer  the 
child.  Do  not  turn  him  away.  If  you  do  not  know,  say  so 
franklv.  It  will  not  be  to  your  discredit,  no  one  is  supposed  to 
know  everything.  But  when  you  say  you  don't  know,  be  sure 
to  add,  "But  1  will  find  out,''  and  then  never  fail  to  find  out. 
Do  not  "bluff  the  boy  off.  If  you  have  not  gray  malter  enough 
to  transfer  the  knowledge  from  your  source  of  information,  then 
take  him  to  someone  who  can  deal  with  him  first  hand.  At  any 
rate,  under  no  consideration,  let  the  doubt  lurk.  Some  of  the 
saddest  instances  of  the  result  of  this  policy  have  come  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  writer.     One  bright  Yale  man  in  post-graduate 


152  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

work  in  Columbia,  said  that  he  had  not  been  in  Sunday  Scliool 
since  his  college  days,  because  he  had  asked  his  teacher  a  ques- 
tion which  she  could  not  answer,  and  he  thought  if  she  did  not 
know,  the  whole  of  religion  was  a  fraud.  In  a  Washington 
Sunday  School  Institute  a  teacher  stated  that  a  lady  had  com- 
mitted suicide,  who  on  her  deathbed  blamed  her  Sunday  School 
teacher  for  not  answering  her  doubts. 

One  must  watch  carefully  for  this  period,  for  the  Course  on 
Christian  Doctrine,  which  should  be  given  at  this  time,  may  be 
given  too  early  or  too  late.  A  teacher  in  one  of  our  large  city 
schools  said  that  she  had  given  the  Course  on  Doctrine  to  girls 
of  thirteen,  who  appeared  absolutely  uninterested.  They 
queried,  "Why  should  anyone  want  to  prove  the  Resurrection  of 
Christ,  or  His  Divinity?  Did  not  the  Creed  say  so?  Did  not 
everybody  believe  it?  Was  not  that  enough?"  The  next  year 
she  was  teaching  them  the  Apostolic  Church  and  they  were  that 
year  in  the  Age  of  Doubt  and  Investigation.  Then  they  were  ask- 
ing her  to  prove  the  very  questions  that  she  had  proved  the  year 
before  and  which  did  not  properly  occur  in  their  text  book.  Doc- 
trinal material  should  be  given  in  full  during  this  time  and  the 
child  cannot  have  too  much.  Nor  should  we  be  afraid  of  science. 
In  The  Lion  of  St.  Mark,  it  says :  "Science  is  swinging  with 
increasing  momentum  from  the  materialistic  toward  the  spir- 
itual reading  of  the  universe;  and  the  number  of  men,  great  in 
science  and  in  invention,  who  array  themselves  on  the  side  of  the 
Christian  faith  grows  steadily.  The  latest  witness  is  Mr.  Edi- 
son, perhaps  the  greatest^  of  living  inventors,  and  certainly  one 
of  the  keenest  brains  of  the  present  generation.  The  New  York 
Tribune  publishes  the  latest  interview  with  Mr.  Edison.  Among 
other  questions  was  one  asking  if  his  theories  of  evolution  and 
cellular  adjustment  made  him  a  disbeliever  in  the  Supreme 
Being.  He  replied:  'Not  at  all.  No  person  can  be  brought 
into  close  contact  with  the  mysteries  of  Nature,  or  make  a  study 
of  chemistry,  or  of  the  laws  of  growth,  without  being  convinced 
that  behind  it  all  there  is  a  supreme  intelligence.  I  do  not  mean 
to  say  a  supreme  law,  for  that  implies  no  consciousness,  but  a 
supreme  mind  operating  through  unchangeable  laws.  I  am  con- 
vinced of  that,  and  I  think  that  T  could — perhaps  I  may  some- 
time— demonstrate  the  existence  of  such  an  Intelligence  through 


THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  153 

the  operation  of  these  mysterious  laws  with  the  certainty  of  a 
demonstration  in  mathematics.' " 

It  is  the  Conversion  Period.  The  psychology  of  conversion 
shows  that  this  phenomenon,  with  its  "sense  of  sin,"  is  a  physi- 
cal or  psycliological,  rather  than  a  spiritual,  development.  It 
gives  the  ripe  and  fitting  time,  however,  for  Christian  and  Spir- 
itual teaching.  Like  other  instincts  (love,  curiosity,  altruism, 
etc.),  the  Instinct  of  Keligiosity  should  be  seized  and  made  use 
of.  It  is  the  Conversion-period,  and  should  be  used  as  such  by 
the  Clnirch. 

Sin,  however,  and  its  realization  by  those  who  have  fallen 
into  its  meshes,  is  a  very  real  thing.  President  G.  Stanley  Hall 
says,  in  The  Prixcu'les  of  Eeligious  Education  :  "I  am  very 
strongly  persuaded  that  not  many  years  will  pass  before  we  shall 
have  from  science  a  very  strong  plea  for  more  preaching  of  sin 
from  the  pulpit.  I  say  this  with  great  diffidence,  and  I  hardly 
meant  to  put  it  quite  so  strongly,  but  I  will  not  go  back  now, 
for  I  very  rarely  get  an  opportunity  to  talk  back  from  the  pulpit; 
my  place  is  in  the  pews.  But  I  do  feel  very  strongly  persuaded 
that  we  ought  to  have  a  little  of  the  old-fashioned  doctrine  of 
sin  preached  as  Augustine  preached  it.  The  Church  deifies 
some  of  our  good  Calvinistic  friends  for  preaching  it.  We  do 
not  hear  so  very  much  of  it;  but  it  is  a  dreadful  thing.  Read 
a  book  like  Nordau's  Degeneration.  Eead  the  modern  studies 
in  criminology  that  are  being  made.  Eead  the  literature  that  is 
abroad,  stamped  with  the  marks  of  human  decadence.  Look  at 
life  as  you  see  it.     Is  not  sin  a  real  thing?" 

Referring  again  to  Professor  Pratt,  he  says :  "In  this  sense, 
religious  belief,  apart  from  its  accidental  and  purely  intellectual 
accretions,  is  biological  rather  than  conceptual,  it  is  not  so  much 
the  acceptance  of  a  proposition  as  an  instinct.  I  do  not  mean 
by  this  that  it  is  an  instinct  in  the  technical  sense  of  the  term, 
but  it  has  its  roots  in  the  same  field,  and  is  in  many  ways  com- 
parable. An  instinct  might  be  roughly  described  as  an  organic 
belief.  It  cannot  be  reasoned  out;  it  must  simply  be  accepted 
and  obeyed.  The  young  bird  before  her  first  migration  to  the 
south  or  before  her  first  period  of  motherhood,  we  must  suppose, 
feels  a  blind  impulse  to  start  southward  or  to  build  her  nest. 
She  cannot  tell  wiiy  it  is;  she  simply  obeys. 


154  RELKilorS  EDICATIOX 

"'JMu'  religious  cojiseiousnuss  in  wliicli  llic  mystical  germ  is 
somewhat  developed  is  in  a  similar  position.  It  may  be  utterly 
in  the  dark  as  to  tlie  nature  of  the  Cosmos  so  far  as  all  reasoning 
goes.  Jt  can  see  (Jod  no  more  than  the  bird  can  see  the  south- 
land. It  simply  accepts  what  it  finds — and  for  the  same  reason 
the  bird  has  in  flying  south,  it  must  say,  'Lord,  Thou  hast  made 
us  for  Thyself,  and  our  hearts  are  restless  till  they  rest  in  Tliec.' 
The  immense  popuhirity  of  this  sentence  of  Augustine's  among 
religious  })eople  of  all  sorts  and  of  all  times  is  an  indication  of 
its  truth  as  a  psychological  desc-i-i])ti()n." 

Miss  Harrison  treats  the  subject  thus :  "The  assumption 
that  every  normally  constituted  offspring  of  the  human  species 
has  a  capacity  for  religion  is,  therefore,  warranted  by  the  study 
of  man  as  a  religious  being,  as  well  as  of  religion  in  its  histori- 
cal development,  it  is  human  to  be  religious.  It  is  sometlii^ig 
less  than  human,  or  more  than  human,  or  somehow  extra  human, 
not  to  be  religious.  This  conviction  may  be  confidently  asserted 
in  the  name  of  modern  psychological  and  historical  science. 

"All  religion  rests  on  a  need  of  the  soul ;  we  hope,  we  dread, 
because  we  wish.  'IMie  ceaseless  craving  for  satisfaction  is  an 
important  part  of  the  human  being's  capacity  for  religion:  And 
it  is  the  attempt  of  the  ])resent  age  to  satisfy  the  deepest  needs 
of  human  nature  by  a  more  abundant  supply  of  physical  com- 
forts and  of  sensuous  pleasures,  wdiich  constitutes  and  validates 
some  of  the  most  effective  influences  for  thwarling  the  chief 
benefits  of  the  religious  life." 

How  do  we  explain  Conversion  Physiologically  and  Psycho- 
logically if  it  is  not  ])rimarily  a  spiritual  and  religious  phenome- 
non? Forbush,  the  great  student  of  Adolescence,  gives  us  the 
answer:  "The  peculiarity  of  this  period  that  most  attracts  atten- 
tion is  that  of  crisis.  It  seems  to  be  well  proven  that  there  comes 
a  time  in  the  adolescence  of  almost  every  boy  and  girl  when  the 
various  physical  and  moi'al  intluences  of  the  life  bear  down  to  a 
point  of  depression,  and  then  rise  suddenly  in  an  ascending 
curve,  carrying  with  them  a  new  life.  There  is  first  a  lull,  then 
a  storm,  then  peace;  what  results  is  not  boy.  but  man.  This 
crisis,  in  religious  matters,  is  called  conversion,  but  is  by  no 
means  confined  to  or  peculiar  to  religious  change.  'It  is/  says 
T>r.   ITall.  'a  natural   resrcneration.     If  the  Tlui^dilinirs-Jackson 


THE  sTA(;i:s  of  i)i:\i:ij)i\mi:nt  155 

throc-lcvol  Ihcorv  ol'  llie  brain  he  true,  there  is  at  this  time  a 
final  and  eoin])lete  transfer  of  the  central  powers  of  the  brain 
from  the  lower  levels  of  instiiiet  and  motor  power  to  the  higher 
levels.'  'It  is,'  says  Lancaster,  'the  focal  point  of  all  psychol- 
ogy.' J)r.  Starbuck's  careful  lliough  dill'usc  study  shows  that 
this  change  is  a])t  to  come  in  a  great  wa\c  al  nboiil  liflccu  or  six- 
teen, preceded  by  a  lesser  wave  at  about  twelve,  aiul  followed  by 
another  at  about  seventeen  or  eighteen.  It  consists  in  a  coming 
out  from  the  little,  dependent,  irresponsible  animal  self  into  the 
large,  independent,  responsible,  outreach ing,  and  upreaching 
moral  life  of  manhood.  Professor  Coe  says:  'I  do  not  think  it 
sliould  he  called  conversion,  Imt  commitment.  It  is  a  ratifica- 
tion rather  than  a  reversal.'  ITe  also  shows  that  the  first  wave  is 
that  of  most  decided  awakening,  although  the  number  of  con- 
versions that  can  be  dated  is  greater  in  the  second  period. 

"There  is  a  marked  difference  in  tiio  way  tliis  'personalizing 
of  religion,'  as  Coe  calls  it,  comes  to  boys  and  to  girls.  With 
boys  it  is  a  later,  more  violent,  and  a  more  sudden  incident. 
With  boys  it  is  more  apt  to  l)e  associated  with  periods  of  doubt; 
with  girls  with  times  of  storm  and  stress.  It  seems  to  be  more 
apt  to  come  to  boys  when  alone ;  to  girls  in  a  church  service. 

"Next  to  the  physical  birth-hour  this  hour  of  psychical 
birth  is  most  critical.  For  ''at  this  formative  stage  an  active 
fermentation  occurs  that  may  give  wine  or  vinegar.'  'This,*  says 
President  Hall,  'is  the  day  of  grace  that  must  not  be  sinned 
away.'  The  period  of  adolescence  is  by  many  divided  into  three 
stages,  embracing  respectively  the  ages  from  twelve  to  sixteen, 
sixteen  to  eighteen,  and  eighteen  to  twenty-four.  These  might 
be  termed  the  stages  of  ferment,  crisis,  and  reconstruction.  ]\Ir. 
E.  P.  St.  John  classifies  them  as  physical,  emotional,  and  intel- 
lectual stages.  Coo  marks  them  as  impulsive,  sentimental,  and 
reflective.  Rev.  Charles  E.  McKinley  marks  them  in  character 
as  solitary,  self-willed,  and  social,  and  in  result  as  discovering 
personal  freedom,  discovering  life,  discovering  social  relations. 
The  three  waves  of  religious  interest  correspond  with  these 
stages.  I  have  not  attempted  to  classify  the  phenomena  of  these 
stages  here,  desiring  rather  to  give  the  impression  of  the  period 
as  a  whole.  Most  of  the  phenomena  which  I  have  spoken  of  be- 
gin in  the  earliest  stage,  reach  their  culmination  in  the  second, 


156  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

and  begin  in  tlie  third  to  form  the  fabric  of  altruism  and  char- 
acter. Of  course  the  instinctive,  the  sensuous,  and  the  senti- 
mental are  apt  to  precede  the  rational  and  the  deliberate. 

"While  we  may  not  pretend  to  comprehend  the  whole  phil- 
osophy of  the  entrance  into  religious  life,  there  are  some  things 
which  seem  to  be  assured.  Such  are  these :  The  boy  is  not  irre- 
ligious; he  is  rather  in  the  imitative,  habituated,  ethical  stage. 
Conversion  is  the  human  act  of  turning  to  God,  not  a  special 
cataclysmal  kind  of  experience  during  that  act." 

Haslett  says:  "Definite  religious  awakenings  are  prominent 
during  this  stage.  It  is  the  paramount  time  when  religious  feel- 
ings are  deepest  and  stir  the  soul  most  easily  and  naturally.  It 
is  to  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  rise  in  the  conversion  curve  just 
before  puberty,  a  distinct  fall  in  it  at  this  change,  and  a  very 
rapid  and  high  rise  in  it  immediately  following  puberty.  The 
golden  time  for  conversion  is  from  about  fourteen  to  nineteen. 
Sixteen  is  the  year  when  the  curve  is  highest,  according  to  most 
of  the  studies  that  have  been  made.  Nature  favors  and  greatly 
aids  grace  during  this  stage.  The  soul  is  open  in  response  to  the 
physical  and  physiological  renovation  and  rejuvenation. 

"It  is  a  sad  fact  that  great  numbers  of  our  young  men  are 
outside  the  Church,  and  Church  relations.  They  seem  to  have  no 
interest  in  the  Church.  Their  energies  are  being  utilized  else- 
where, and  the  Church  is  the  loser.  They  appear  to  be  out  of 
touch  with  the  Church,  with  too  little  in  common  between  them, 
and  the  one  institution  that  should  be  crowded  with  the  youth  of 
the  land  is  neglected.  A  pastor  who  has  been  successful  in  filling 
his  church  at  its  services,  said  that  he  usually  had  three  hundred 
young  men  at  his  meetings.  Perhaps  he  did.  But  four  years 
afterwards  you  could  not  find  fifty  young  men  in  one  of  those 
meetings,  except  on  special  occasions.  The  fact  is  they  drifted 
to  those  places  where  there  was  provision  for  their  needs  and 
interests.  One  of  the  saddest  features  of  the  Christian  Church 
to-day  is  the  fact  that  the  young  men  are  not  found  within  her 
pale.  It  is  not  higher  criticism,  not  the  new  theology,  not  the 
changed  character  of  the  preaching,  not  the  extensive  or  elabo- 
rate musical  programs,  not  the  rivalry  of  the  churches;  none  of 
these  nor  all  combined  that  can  account  for  the  dearth  of  young 
manhood  in  the  Church  of  the  present.     The  cause  must  be 


THE  STAUES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  157 

sought  olscwlierc.  The  cliaractcr  of  the  times  has  changed, 
changed  enormously  within  tlic  last  twenty-five  years.  Social 
organizations,  cluhs,  societies,  fraternities,  have  all  multiplied 
very  rapidly.  Here  the  young  man  finds  the  exercises  that  ap- 
peal to  his  nature  and  needs,  to  a  degree.  Not  that  they  are 
religious,  most  of  them  are  not,  but  they  meet  a  deep  want  in  his 
nature.  They  appeal  to  the  sense  of  individuality,  independ- 
ence, worth,  eagerness,  and  the  feeling  of  enthusiasm,  as  well  as 
feed  the  social  nature,  so  strong  at  this  stage.  Provision  must 
he  made  for  the  leading  instincts  and  capabilities  of  the  young 
to  develop  activity,  and  activity  that  results  in  actual  value  to 
others.  The  youth  should  feel  that  the  work  he  is  doing,  the 
part  he  is  playing  in  the  role  of  the  Church's  activity,  is  essen- 
tial, valuable,  and  ap])reciatcd  by  those  with  whom  and  for  whom 
lie  works.  Let  him  have  something  to  do,  and  let  him  realize 
the  importance  of  that  service,  and  let  it  also  be  of  such  a 
nature  as  shall  suit  his  gifts  and  interests  as  far  as  possible, 
giving  great  freedom  and  encouraging  a  spirit  of  responsibility 
and  authority  in  him,  and  a  long  step  will  have  been  taken  in 
the  right  direction  towards  holding  the  youth  within  the  fold  of 
the  Church. 

"The  entire  services  of  the  Church,  opening,  music,  sermon, 
closing,  receiving  of  the  offering,  social  feature  at  the  close, 
must  all  be  of  such  a  nature  as  appeals  to  manhood.  We  should 
have  a  large  number  of  hymns  written  by  capable  composers, 
and  suited  to  the  adolescent  nature  and  needs,  and  given  place 
within  the  hymnals.  The  trouble  has  been  that  the  whole  organi- 
zation, administration,  services  and  work  of  the  Church  until 
very  lately,  have  been  planned  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
adult,  theological  t}'pe  of  mind." 

Tlic  Curve  of  Conversion. — Professor  Starbuck,  Professor 
of  Psychology  in  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  got 
out  a  book  some  years  ago  which  is  a  study  of  The  Psychology 
OF  CoxvERSiox.  He  made  a  very  detailed  research,  and  his  re- 
sults are  incontestable.  Professor  Coe,  a  devout  Methodist,  who 
would  be  inclined  to  accept  the  old  view  of  conversion, brought  out 
his  book  in  1900  on  The  Spiritual  Life.  He  accepts  Starbuck's 
curves.  Stanley  Hall,  the  author  of  Adolescexce,  the  enormous 
two-volume  study  of  this  subject,  accepts  Starbuck's  Curves; 


158 


U K M ( ;  1<  )L"S  EDUCATION 


i'lvsidciil  Biillcr  .iiid  Dr.  A.  A.  IJutler;  L'roi'essor  James  and 
Kdwin  F.  See;  Di-.  William  15.  Forhusli  and  Professor  Haslett, 
iu  fact  every  writer  on  this  sui)jeet  to-day  accepts  Starbuck's 
Curves,  so  that  practically  they  can  be  considered  as  standard. 
These  are  the  Curves.  They  are  worth  careful  study  and  copy- 
inof. 


Somewhere  between  thirteen  and  sixteen,  differing  witli 
boys  and  girls,  comes  the  rise  in  the  Curve,  sharp  and  distinct. 
There  is  no  mistaking  it.  The  signs  will  be  the  Doubts,  the 
Ideals,  the  Mind  Wandering  and  Storms  and  Stress,  and  the 
sudden  Desire  to  do  something  for  the  Church  or  for  mankind. 

It  may  come  with  a  life  that  is  very  inconsistent,  for  practi- 
cally it  has  ver}^  little  to  do  with  life,  it  is  an  inclination  to  al- 
truism, to  do  good,  to  do  better  service.  The  child  may  be  very 
inconsistent  and  seemingly  indifferent  to  religion.  You  say, 
"Oh,  that  child  is  not  fit  for  Confirmation."  Yet,  it  is  undoubt- 
edly the  leading  of  the  S]iirit.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  time  when 
the  iron  is  white-hot.  Now  remember  tliat  the  iron  does  not 
become  white-hot  because  you  are  going  to  mold  it.  It  becomes 
Avhite-hot  because  it  is  in  the  fire.  So  it  is  with  conversion. 
Tliis  storm  and  stress  period,  this  iiphcaval,  this  grace,  does  not 
come  properly  from  a  religious  motive.  It  comes  from  a  physio- 
logical and  psychological  one,  as  we  have  said  before.  It  is  the 
time  when  the  iron  is  Avhite  hot,  when  the  child  is  moldable, 
when  the  instinct  of  religiosity  can  be  reached  and  touched.     It 


I'lii':  si'AcKs  oi'  i)i:\i:i.()i'.Mi:xT  i.'>!t 

is  ilic  lime  to  stril<('  fur  (iod.     Tlic  cliango  of  lift:  and  conducl 
will   follow  after,  not  come  hefoi'e. 

We  lia\c  often  asked,  "How  can  you  ex])e('(  a  ehild  fo  l)e 
p'ood  until  you  have  i;iven  him  (iod's  ])ow('r  in  Holy  Baj)tisin 
and  Condiiuat  ion  ?""  How  can  you  ex])ect  him  to  he  good  any 
more  than  you  can  expect  a  sick  person  to  walk  without 
stronuiheiiini:-  his  muscles?  If  one  has  lain  in  hed  for  a  month, 
he  can  reachly  say:  *'!  cannot  walk."  No,  nor  would  he  ever  he 
ahle  to  walk  until  he  got  u])  and  practised. 

This  period  may  last  two  weeks,  two  months,  possihly  a  year, 
hut  is  more  likely  to  he  very  short  than  at  all  long.  The  iron 
does  not  stay  white  long.  Then  there  is  a  sudden  drop  of  in- 
difi'erence.  Then  somewhere  hetween  seventeen  and  nineteen 
there  is  a  second  rise  in  the  Curve,  not  so  high  as  before,  nor 
so  sharp  and  strong;  but  longer  and  broader — that  is,  extending 
over  a  greater  period.  This  is  a  second  chance  to  reach  the 
child.  Xot  being  so  sharp,  it  may  be  overlooked;  whereas  it 
Would  take  a  blind  man  to  overlook  the  first  curve.  The  drop 
occurs  again,  and  somewhere  between  thirty  and  thirty-three 
there  is  a  last  rise,  not  so  high  as  the  second  time,  and  about  the 
same  length,  but  if  the  man  has  not  been  reached  then,  where 
is  he?  ITe  is  in  the  home,  sleeping  late  on  Sunday  mornings, 
or  r(>ading  the  Sunday  newspa])er,  or  perchance  playing  golf  or 
riding  the  automobile.  He  is  usually  not  in  a  place  where  he 
can  be  reached.  And  the  woman,  where  is  she?  In  the  home, 
occupied  l)y  home  duti(>s,  in  society  with  its  distractions;  but  l)y 
a  beautiful  coincidence,  it  often  happens  that  the  woman,  mar- 
rving  voung,  has  \\vv  little  child,  now  in  the  first  period  at 
twelve  or  thirteen.  This  child  is  reached,  and  "a  little  child 
shall  lead  them"  is  shown  l)y  mother  and  child  coming  hand  in 
hand  to  God's  altar.  Scarcely  well  is  it  to  rtin  the  risk  of  waiting 
for  this  last  period,  however,  for  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  figures  show- 
that  onlv  five  ])er  cent,  are  reached  after  the  age  of  twenty-one. 

During  this  period  of  adolescence  the  child  now  passes  out 
of  the  stagt'  where  the  whole  family  or  the  entire  race  is  initiated 
into  a  religion  l)ecaus(>  of  the  helief  of  the  chief  or  leader.  He 
no  longer  speaks  of  "our  church,"  or  "our"  position  whatever  it 
may  be,  in  the  inijiersonal  way  so  customary  a  year  or  two 
earlier.     He  forms  his  own  views.     ITe  is  a  Christian  because 


160  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

he  personally  embraces  Christianity.  He  must  stand  on  his 
own  feet.  This  is  the  natural  and  ajipropriate  time  to  put  the 
question,  "Do  you  believe?"  It  is  the  natural  and  appropriate 
time  for  the  personal  assumption  of  the  vows  made  for  one  in 
baptism,  or  for  otherwise  uniting  with  the  Church. 

Only  two  points  in  this  connection  can  be  touched  upon  here. 
The  first  is  an  eagerness  for  service.  The  young  person  is  now 
ready,  not  only  to  follow  a  leader,  but  to  fight  for  and  champion 
a  cause. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  scholar  arrives  at  the  period  for 
grasping  a  specific  truth  and  does  not  find  that  truth,  if  he  is 
ready  for  a  new  stage  of  spiritual  development  and  is  still  fed 
only  on  thought  suitable  for  earlier  stages,  his  spiritual  devel- 
opment is  in  danger  of  being  impoverished  or  even  permanently 
arrested. 

Dr.  O'Shea,  referring  to  the  religious  phase  of  adolescence, 
says:  "Adolescent  religious  instruction  should  relate  more  to 
action,  to  doing,  than  to  speculation.  What  the  boy  particularly 
should  hear  in  the  Sunday  School  should  have  reference  mainly 
to  worthy  tasks  to  be  undertaken  in  the  world,  great  deeds  to  be 
done.  But,  not  realizing  the  nature  of  the  adolescent  boy,  teach- 
ers have  presented  religion  as  the  source  of  peace  and  rest, 
rather  than  as  the  armor  Math  which  hard  battles  are  to  be 
fought,  and  in  the  course  of  events  the  young  man  drifts  away 
from  the  Sunday  School  because  there  is  more  in  the  world  out- 
side that  appeals  to  his  love  of  action,  of  daring,  of  bravery, 
and  of  enterprise." 

"Another  curious  fact,"  writes  Forbush,  "about  the  matur- 
ing life  is  that  it  comes  on  in  waves.  Between  these  are  Lulls. 
These  lulls  were  called  to  my  attention  by  some  heads  of  reform- 
atories before  I  read  about  them.  What  is  the  explanation? 
If  you  chart  out  all  these  rhythms,  physical,  mental,  social,  and 
moral,  you  will  find  that  they  closely  correspond.  Their  ex- 
planation is  largely  physical.  When  physical  growth  and  energy 
are  near  their  flood-tide,  tlie  other  friendly  energies  respond 
likewise,  but  during  these  reaction  times  which  the  good  God 
gives  so  that  the  child's  body  may  gather  power  to  grow  again, 
all  the  other  energies  hibernate.  This  law  of  rhythms  probably 
acts  to  a  lesser  degree  all  through  life.     It  is  not  confined  to 


THE    STAGES   OF   DP:VKLOrMENT  Kil 

adolescence.  Middle-aged  people  have  testified  to  having  regu- 
lar fluctuations  of  religious  interest  once  in  two  years;  others, 
during  successive  winters.  Some  of  these  cases  are  explainable, 
some  are  obscure.  The  tendency  of  nervous  energy  to  expend 
and  then  recuperate  itself;  the  fact  of  a  yearly  rhythm  in  growth, 
greatest  in  the  autumn  and  least  from  April  to  July,  pointed  out 
by  Malling-Hansen ;  the  influence  of  winter  quiet  and  leisure 
upon  religious  feeling — these  are  suggestive.  In  boyhood  it 
is  probable  that  the  first  lull  is  a  reaction  from  the  shock  of  the 
pubertal  change,  the  second  a  reaction  from  the  year  of  greatest 
physical  growth,  and  the  tliird  a  reaction  from  the  year  of  doubt 
and  re-creation.  The  boy,  then,  who  suddenly  loses  his  interest 
in  religion  or  work  or  ideals  is  not  to  be  thought  in  a  desperate 
condition,  and  somebody  ought  to  tell  him  that  he  is  not.  There 
is  nothing  to  do  but  wait  for  this  condition,  which  is  natural  and 
helpful  to  over-wrought  energies,  to  pass,  as  it  surely  will." 

Professor  See  summarizes  the  results:  "The  history  of 
national  and  ecclesiastical  customs,  as  well  as  the  result  of 
scientific  investigations,  point  to  the  period  between  twelve  and 
sixteen  as  one  of  critical  religious  importance.  We  are  told  that 
it  has  been  a  world-wide  custom  to  celebrate  the  advent  of 
adolescence  with  feasts,  ceremonies,  and  mystic  rites.  This  is 
the  age  of  confirmation  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the 
Church  of  England,  the  Episcopal  Church  in  America,  the 
Lutheran  and  other  churches." 

When,  therefore.  Dr.  Stanley  Hall  speaks  of  conversion  as 
"a  natural  regeneration"  and  "a  physiological  second  birth,"  and 
Dr.  Starbuck  calls  it  "a  distinctively  adolescent  phenomenon," 
they  are  simply  reducing  this  critical  religious  experience  to  the 
terms  of  physiology  or  psychology,  but  recognizing  that  in  the 
orderly  development  of  the  life  of  the  boy,  according  to  the  laws 
of  God,  the  physiological  and  psychological  changes  which  come 
to  him  at  this  period  are  part  of  a  religious  experience  as  well. 
As  Dr.  Coe  says:  "When  the  approaching  change  has  heralded 
itself,  the  religious  consciousness  also  tends  to  awaken.  When 
the  bodily  life  is  in  most  rapid  transition,  the  religious  instincts 
likewise  come  into  a  new  and  greater  life." 

The  So-called  Gang  Age.  The  use  of  this  word  "Gang" 
applied  to  boys  is  one  of  those  singularly  inconsistent  lapses  of 


11)2  IJKLKnors   KDICATIOX 

speech  uJiieli  do  more  lianii  in  a  single  word  llian  many  labored 
chapters  can  correct.  "Give  a  dog  a  bad  name  and  hang  it" : 
Give  defenceless  and  ingenuous  bo3's  at  this  age  a  class  name 
that  allies  them  with  criminals  and  they  will  hardly  thank  you: 
nor  will  instructors  who  have  any  conception  of  auto-suggestion. 
The  boys  are  going  in  gangs  and  the  girls  are  going  in  cliques. 
The  father  suddenly  awakens  to  the  fact  that  his  lad  and  he  have 
grown  apart.  The  peculiar  self-centeredness  and  sensitiveness 
of  this  period  are  the  cause  of  it.  And  yet  the  adolescent  youth 
is  yearning  for  sympathy.  As  we  noted  under  the  preceding 
period,  they  yearn  to  be  loved,  but  they  will  not  show  it.  Wise 
are  the  parents  who  keep  in  touch  with  their  children  now,  who 
encourage  confidences,  who  never  scold  or  repel  them,  but  who 
do  advise  and  guide  them;  who  get  them  to  tell  even  of  wrong 
doings  and  wild  oats  and  shady  actions,  aiming  all  the  while  to 
guide  and  lead  and  help  them.  The  child  will  form  an  attrac- 
tion for  one  older  and  w'iser  than  himself  and  when  he  respects 
and  loves,  will  devotedly  yield  his  life  rather  than  be  untrue. 
The  best  teacher  now  is  an  older  woman,  or  man  who  remembers 
his  own  adolescent  age.  The  unfortunate  trouble  with  men  at 
this  time  is  that  they  do  not  remember  it. 

The  extreme  danger  of  following  a  harmful,  wicked  leader  is 
obvious.  "Leading  straight"  is  a  prerequisite  of  a  friend.  Only 
genuine  sympathy  on  the  part  of  a  teacher  can  hold  a  class  at 
this  age.  "The  follies  of  youth,"  the  lad's  "conceit,"  the  girl's 
"frivolity,"  become  unbearable  to  any  save  one  who  can  "under- 
stand." 

Use  this  gang  instinct  in  class  organization.  The  gang 
instinct  means  two  things — following  the  leader,  and  self-gov- 
ernment. The  day  school  recognizes  it,  and  in  New  York  we 
get  the  leader  of  the  gang,  with  his  gang,  into  the  club,  in  the 
night  school  and  from  there  to  the  educational  classes  below. 
Form  every  class  in  the  Sunday  School  into  the  nearest  approach 
to  a  gang,  and  give  it  a  name.  You  cannot  call  it  St.  Philip's 
Gang,  St.  George's  Gang,  St.  Bartholomew^'s  Gang — that  will 
scarcely  do.  Nor  do  the  names  "class"  and  "club''  quite  satisfy. 
A  good  plan  is  to  call  every  girls'  class  a  "Guild,"  and  every  boys' 
class  a  "League."  Let  them  elect  their  own  officers,  but  not 
the  teacher  as  one.     Let  the  teacher  be  merelv  the  director,  the 


TIIK    STA(;i:S    OF    l)i:\KI/>l'.Mi:XT  lfi:i 

I)owor  bcliiiul  the  lliroiic.  Ld  one  youlli  \)v  prcsidfiil.  one  treas- 
urer, one  seeretiir};,  and  all  the  rest  viee-presidents.  Give  every- 
body an  oflice.  T.et  them  take  lurns  in  conducting  the  class  reci- 
tation. )'()u  will  probably  think  the  lesson  will  not  be  so  well 
taufjht.  'riiri/  will  certainly  think  it  is  better.  You  will  have 
to  do  more  work,  study  harder.  Have  the  class  leader  each  week 
at  your  home  and  i)os>ib!y  spend  hours  i,^oin<^  over  the  material 
with  him  or  Ium-,  but  the  cooperation  on  the  i)ai't  of  the  chiss.  the 
interest  taken  by  them  in  their  woi'k,  will  well  repay  the  effort. 
School  after  school,  teacher  after  teacher  are  bearing  witness 
to-day  to  the  pedagogical  value  of  this  plan.  Many  a  day  school 
teacher,  working  out  this  system  in  the  Sunday  School,  has  said, 
"I  never  got  such  work  out  of  my  scholars  before,  as  I  do  now." 

The  Strengtiicning  of  Conscience.  Mrs.  Birney,  in  her 
book  upon  CiriLDiiooi),  says:  "The  budding  conscience  which 
appeared  about  the  fourth  year,  and  which,  through  its  expan- 
sion, has  led  the  boy  to  do  without  protest  what  his  parents,  his 
teacher,  or  society  required,  now  feels  a  need  for  some  other 
guide  to  conduct,  some  explanation  of  human  life  and  its  phe- 
nomena. Truly  has  this  period  of  life  been  designated  as  a 
'second  birth.'  The  earlier  years  have  been  filled  with  external 
objects  and  physical  growth  and  needs,  and  now  the  soul  seems 
to  spring  into  conscious  activity  and  to  assert  its  sovereignty 
over  the  mind  and  heart.  This  is  the  time  for  the  development 
of  altruism,  of  the  ideal,  of  all  that  is  noble  and  fine  and  great  in 
human  character.  The  mind  is  marvellously  receptive  to  sug- 
gestion, the  brain  quick  to  perceive,  the  muscles  to  act.  If  evil 
inclinations  manifest  themselves,  counteract  their  influence,  not 
by  dwelling  upon  them,  but  by  putting  something  else  in  their 
place  in  the  form  of  occupation  or  amusement.  Someone  has 
said:  'We  grow  toward  goodness  rather  by  pulling  ourselves  up 
to  it,  than  by  pushing  ourselves  away  from  evil.'  " 

Eefcrring  to  A  ^Modern  Study  of  Coxsciexce,  by  Huckell, 
we  read:  "It  is  at  this  point  that  a  modern  study  of  conscience 
may  be  said  to  take  up  the  problem  and  to  bring  it  into  new  light. 
This  may  be  considered  the  modern  view,  as  now  generally  held  : 
Conscience  has  two  elements — moral  judgment  and  moral  obliga- 
tion. As  to  judgment,  it  is  probable  that  reason  acts  in  con- 
science as  it  acts  in  any  other  matter  I     And  therefore  the  judg- 


164  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

inents  of  conscience  arc  fallible;  but  as  to  obligation,  there  is 
something  unique.  We  recognize  that  an  ordinary  judgment  of 
reason  may  or  may  not  involve  obligation.  There  is  a  sense  of 
the  ought  wliich  is  manifest  and  unmistakable.  Now  this  fact 
of  the  sense  of  moral  obligation  must  be  accounted  for.  The 
question  is,  whctlicr  this  norm,  this  sense  of  obligation,  is  native 
or  acquired.  The  intuitionalists  would  say  that  it  is  native; 
the  evolutionists,  that  it  is  acquired.  The  truest  view  would  be 
probably  a  reconciliation  of  these  views,  for  in  a  certain  way  this 
sense  of  obligation  is  both  native  and  acquired.  Many  of  the 
intuitionalists  would  not,  however,  agree  to  reconciliation,  for 
they  would  not  accept  the  cosmic  theory  of  the  evolutionists, 
although  it  may  give  a  very  full  and  noble  view  of  life.  The 
intuitionalists  would  hold  that  the  successive  epochs  of  life,  con- 
sciousness, morality  in  man,  were  implanted  ah  extra  at  certain 
stages  of  life  or  in  the  individual  man.  Many  ethical  thinkers 
of  to-day  define  conscience  as  the  entire  moral  constitution  or 
nature  of  man.  Some  hold  that  this  moral  nature  is  a  separate 
faculty  in  man.  Thus  Dr.  Thomas  Keid  defines  it  as  'an  orig- 
inal power  of  the  mind,  a  moral  faculty  by  which  we  have  the 
conceptions  of  right  and  wrong  in  human  conduct,  and  the  dic- 
tates of  which  form  the  first  principles  of  morals.'  Others  hold 
that  conscience  apprehends  the  distinctions  of  right  and  wrong, 
but  only  applies  them  personally.  Thus  President  Mark  Hop- 
kins says :  'We  may  define  conscience  to  be  the  whole  moral  con- 
sciousness of  a  man  in  view  of  his  own  actions  as  related  to  moral 
law.'  Others  hold  that  'conscience  should  not  be  used  as  an 
appellation  for  a  separate  or  special  moral  faculty,  for  the  reason 
that  there  is  no  such  faculty.'  This  was  President  iSToah  Por- 
ter's view.  'The  same  intellect,'  he  contends,  'so  far  as  it  knows 
itself,  acts  with  respect  to  moral  relations  under  the  same  laws, 
and  by  the  same  methods  of  comparison,  deduction,  and  infer- 
ence as  when  it  is  concerned  with  other  material.'  " 

We  see,  therefore,  something  of  the  meaning  of  the  further 
differing  definitions  of  conscience  that  are  often  given.  Con- 
science, says  a  naturalist,  is  a  highly  important  organ  for  pre- 
serving life.  "A  man's  conscience,"  says  Clifford,  "is  the  voice 
of  his  tribal  self,  the  individual  self  being  subordinate  to  the 
tribal  self."    Conscience,  says  another,  is  that  phase  of  our  na- 


THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  165 

ture  which  opposes  inclination  and  manifests  itself  in  the  feel- 
ing of  obligation  and  duty.  "A  man's  conscience,"  says  still 
another,  Professor  Starke,  "is  a  particular  kind  of  pleasure  and 
pain  felt  in  perceiving  our  own  conformity  or  nonconformity  to 
principles."  "Conscience,"  says  Professor  Frederick  Paulsen, 
"is  a  knowledge  of  a  higher  will  by  which  the  individual  feels 
himself  internally  bound."  Trendelenburg  asserts  that  con- 
science is  the  reaction  and  proaction  of  the  total  God-centered 
man  against  the  man  as  partial,  especially  against  the  self- 
seeking  part  of  himself.  Schlegel's  definition  is  interesting: 
"Conscience  is  an  inward  revelation  as  a  warning  voice,  which 
though  sounding  in  us,  is  not  of  us,  and  makes  itself  to  be  felt 
as  an  awe  and  fear  of  Deity.  It  is  in  all  human  bosoms  and 
lies  at  the  source  of  all  morality." 

This  subject  will  be  dealt  with  again  under  the  chapter  on 
the  Training  of  the  Will. 

The  Century  Dictionary  defines  Conscience  as :  'The  Con- 
sciousness that  the  acts  for  which  a  person  believes  himself  to  be 
responsible  do  or  do  not  conform  to  his  ideal  of  right ;  the  moral 
judgment  of  the  individual  applied  to  his  own  conduct,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  perception  of  right  and  wrong  in  the  abstract, 
and  in  the  conduct  of  others.  It  manifests  itself  in  the  feeling 
of  obligation  or  duty,  the  moral  imperative — I  ought,  or,  I  ought 
not;  hence,  the  Voice  of  Conscience." 

The  latter  part  of  this  definition  permits  us  to  divide  this 
much  debated  subject  into  two  parts,  which  can  then  be  sepa- 
rately handled  and  settled.  There  is  the  moral  judgment  of 
the  individual,  which,  like  his  literary  or  artistic  judgment,  can 
be  developed  by  training,  until  it  becomes  his  reasonable  adviser 
in  all  matters  that  come  within  its  province,  and  it  is  the  func- 
tion of  moral  judgment,  thus  trained  and  reliable,  or,  on  the 
contrary,  untrained  or  mistrained  and  unreliable,  to  present  the 
case  arising  in  any  moral  crisis  before  the  individual  mind. 
At  such  a  moment  Conscience,  apprehending  the  presentation, 
discharges  its  whole  function  of  the  feeling  of  obligation  by 
issuing  the  moral  imperative — Do  this;  or,  Eefrain  from 
doing  it. 

The  Enlightenment,  the  Clearing-up  Time.  The  youth  is 
easily  guided  and  led  out  of  his  erratic  doubtings,  into  definite, 


166  RKJ.IGIOUS  EDUCATION 

clear  convictions  on  any  subject.  Give  him  logical,  reasonable 
proof,  and  he  is  satisfied.  His  reason  is  so  active  that  it  de- 
mands proof.  This  period  has  been  called  the  "Aufkliirung," 
the  "clearing-up"  of  the  unsettled  questions.  Statements  accepted 
hitherto  on  faith  iji  the  source  or  person  making  them,  must 
now  be  re-settled,  with  the  proof.  The  youth  is  eager  for  facts 
and  reasons.  His  animated  face  shows  it.  "The  mask-like,  im- 
passive face  at  this  age,"  says  Forbush,  "is  a  sign  of  a  loss  of 
youth  or  of  purity."  "He  who  is  a  man  at  sixteen,  will  be  a 
child  at  sixty."  Starbuck  fixes  the  acme  of  the  doubt-period  at 
eighteen,  the  commencement  of  Later  Adolescence.  The  storm 
and  stress  period  ends  in  a  Crisis.  There  is  at  first  the  lull, 
then  the  storm,  then  peace;  and  at  the  end,  when  peace  comes, 
we  find  we  have  Man  or  Woman  in  place  of  Boy  or  Girl. 

The  youth  has  gone  through  the  turbulent  rapids  and  has 
come  out  into  the  quiet  lake  beyond.  No  wonder  a  father  said 
the  other  day:  "I  understand  now  why  my  boy  wrote  home 
from  college,  'Father.  T  can't  explain  how  I  am  different,  but 
somehow  there  seems  to  be  rolled  away  from  me  a  great  load. 
T  look  at  the  world  differently.  T  seem  to  be  lighter-headed,  and 
it  all  seems  to  be  brighter  around  me.'  "  Of  course  it  did,  it 
was  the  Enlightenment. 

Development  of  WW.  We  have  ref^erred  before  to  the  fact 
that  Will  is  developed  during  this  period,  and  we  devote  a 
special  chapter  toward  the  end  of  the  book  which  treats  of  the 
Development  and  Training  of  Will.  The  father  looks  one  day 
into  the  eyes  of  what  he  thought  was  his  little  boy,  and  sees 
looking  out  the  unaccustomed  and  free  spirit  of  a  young  and 
unconquerable  personality.  "Some  mad  parents,"  says  James, 
"take  this  time  to  begin  the  charming  task  of  breaking  the 
child's  will,  which  is  usually  set  about  with  the  same  energy  and 
implements  as  the  beating  of  carpets."  But  the  boy  is  too  big 
to  be  licked  or  to  be  mentally  or  morally  coerced.  Haslett  says: 
"Most  fights  occur  at  this  stage.  The  youth  is  apt  to  cause  more 
real  commotion  and  trouble  to  the  hour  than  at  any  other  time 
between  birth  and  maturity.  It  would  seem  that  he  smells  fight 
and  contention  in  the  very  air  he  breathes.  If  he  cannot  fight, 
then  smaller  ones  are  encouraged  to  engage  in  a  friendly  scrim- 
mage— trouble  he  must  have.     Some  reformers  think  that  if  a 


TIIK   STA(;i-:S  OF   DEVELOPMKNI  167 

change  for  a  j)invr  iiioral  life  does  not  occur  before  the  age  of 
twelve  it  is  not  likely  to  be  accomplished  except  at  great  cost 
afterwards.  The  forces  and  qualities  that  are  present  and  domi- 
nant bcfoi-e  pul)erty  are  likely  to  be  strengthened  by  the  change. 
Hence  the  argument  for  llic  early  and  careful  religious  and 
moral  training  of  children.  Jt  is  an  illustration  of  the  greater 
fact  that  life  tends  to  hold  together,  each  stage  prejiaring  for  the 
following  stage. 

The  moral  sense  in  boys  is  not  as  acute  as  in  girls.  Boys 
do  not  make  such  fine  distinctions  in  relation  to  right  and  wrong. 
Swearing,  stealing,  lying,  incendiarism,  murder,  etc.,  are  crimes 
to  be  avoided  as  the  boy  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  views  things. 
Acts  must  be  very  wrong,  very  violent  and  harmful  or  he  will 
not  be  so  likely  to  think  them  serious,  (lirls  mention  im- 
modesty, untidiness,  pouting,  carelessness,  masculinity,  etc.,  as 
wrong.  With  them  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  baser  and 
more  violent  crimes  are  violations  of  right.  The  first  crime  that 
comes  under  the  ban  of  the  law  is  vagrancy,  including  petty  acts 
of  pilfering.  This  is  the  age  when  boys  are  apt  to  become  gen- 
eral nuisances,  imitating  in  no  snuiU  degree  their  superiors  in 
this  line.  It  is  the  dime  novel,  the  "yellow-back  literature" 
stage.  General  meanness  develops  fast  when  once  started. 
Crime  against  property  follows  that  of  vagranc}^,  as  a  rule.  De- 
structiveness  manifests  itself  with  native  tendency  to  torture 
and  destroy.  This  is  the  age  when  orchards  are  apt  to  be  visited 
frequently  by  boys;  buildings,  notices,  and  fences  disfigured. 
Crime  against  persons  follows  that  against  property.  Dr.  Marro 
finds  that  before  fifteen,  crime  against  persons  is  rare  compared 
to  the  ten  years  following  that  year,  ilost  frequent  infractions 
in  prisons  are  by  young  men.  Sikorski  reported  that  the  most 
frequent  infractions  against  the  rules  of  the  military  school  were 
from  thirteen  to  fifteen.  A  study  made  by  Dr.  Marro  of  over 
3,000  students  in  academies  in  Italy,  shows  that  conduct  is  good 
at  eleven,  but  fell  away  down  to  the  lowest  point  at  fourteen, 
and  then  gradually  rose  until  the  highest  point  was  reached  at 
eighteen. 

We  hesitate  whether  more  to  be  afraid  of  or  alarmed  for 
this  creature,  who  has  become  endowed  with  the  passions  and 
independence  of  manhood  while  still  a  child  in  foresight  and 


168  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

judgment.  He  rushes  now  into  so  many  crazy  plans  and  harm- 
ful deeds.  This  age,  particularly  that  from  twelve  to  sixteen, 
is  the  most  critical  and  difficult  to  deal  with  in  all  childhood. 
It  is  so  because  the  boy  now  becomes  secretive,  he  neither  can 
nor  will  utter  himself,  and  the  very  sensitiveness,  the  longing 
and  overpowering  sense  of  the  new  life,  is  often  so  concealed  by 
inconsistent  and  even  barbarous  behavior,  that  one  quite  loses 
both  comprehension  and  patience. 

According  to  Ilaslett :  "Things  must  not  be  too  easy  of 
accomplishment  is  the  practical  application  of  what  has  just 
been  said,  and  particularly  so  when  adults  are  dealt  with.  The 
appeal  should  be  made  largely  to  the  manhood  and  womanhood 
of  the  persons  whom  we  are  desirous  of  reaching  and  winning. 
Let  the  task  be  a  difficult  one,  let  it  require  considerable  exer- 
tion in  its  accomplishment,  and  it  will  be  more  likely  to  be  under- 
taken. Appeal  to  the  will  power  in  men  and  women.  Let 
them  realize  that  this  power  is  appealed  to,  is  relied  upon  to 
undertake  and  complete  the  task,  whatever  its  accomplishment. 
The  organ  of  manhood  and  womanhood  is  the  will.  If  there  is 
a  fair  amount  of  worth  in  a  person,  that  one  will  not  stand  by 
and  hear  himself  or  herself  ridiculed,  classed  as  an  imbecile,  as 
an  aboulique,  or  as  a  good-for-nothing.  Such  an  one  will  arouse 
and  set  to  work  and  do  the  best  that  is  possible.  Time  and 
again  this  has  been  done.  Some  argue  with  considerable  force 
that  the  Church  has  made  admission  to  membership  entirely  too 
easy;  that  the  scarcity  of  men  in  the  Church  is  in  large  meas- 
ure due  to  the  ease  with  which  persons  can  come  into  member- 
ship. Sufficient  cost  of  thought,  time,  sacrifice,  and  energy  of 
will  are  lacking  to  make  it  worth  while  to  enter,  it  is  said." 

The  Christian  Faith,  in  its  "Christocentric  character,"  has 
now  a  splendid  hold  upon  the  eager  youth,  furnishing  a  logical, 
clear,  doctrinal  system  on  which  to  build.  Now  can  be  com- 
prehended, for  the  first  time,  the  meaning  of  the  Sacrifice  of 
Christ,  the  New  Testament  ideas,  the  Atonement,  and  the  iles- 
sianic  Forecast. 

Ritual  and  Adolescence.  Haslett,  though  not  himself  a 
Churchman,  points  out  the  supreme  importance  of  Ritual  during 
the  pubescent  period.  "The  spectacular  and  objective  always 
appeal  to  children.     That   which  stimulates  their  senses  and 


THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  ino 

awakens  interest  through  the  exercise  of  the  same,  other  things 
being  proper,  is  in  place  in  the  instruction  of  childhood.  .  .  . 
It  is  especially  at  the  transitional  stage,  the  pubescent  stage, 
that  the  ritualistic  is  appropriate  and  necessary,  and  should  be 

carefully  provided   and   administered While   girls 

are  more  interested  in  the  ritualistic  and  symbolic,  yet  the  boys 
enjoy  tlie  spectacular  phases  of  the  ritualistic  more.  The  girls 
are  impressed  more  with  their  meaning  than  are  the  boys.  Girls 
look  upon  the  subjective  side  of  morals,  boys  upon  the  objective. 
Girls  are  more  easily  influenced  by  their  environment,  and  react 

more  quickly Boys  are  more  expressive,  but  at  the 

age  of  puberty  are  inclined  to  be  reticent Those 

Churches  that  practise  Confirmation  enriched  by  splendid  rituals 
are  in  accord  with  the  real  nature  of  things,  and  should  be  in- 
fluential in  arousing  the  Churches  at  large  to  make  proper  pro- 
vision for  this  critical  stage  of  life " 

Ethical  Dualism.  In  The  Boy  Problem  Forbush  states: 
"Ethical  Dualism,  a  trait  of  semi-development  and  one  with 
which  we  are  familiar  among  American  negroes,  is  characteristic 
of  immaturity.  It  is  the  trait  of  the  person  who  has  not  yet  ac- 
cepted the  responsibility  for  his  own  life.  jSTone  of  us  entirely 
shake  it  off.  Not  only  is  the  Sunday  boy  different  from  the 
Monday  boy,  the  boy  praying  different  from  the  boy  playing, 
the  boy  alone  or  with  his  parents  or  his  adult  friend  different 
from  the  boy  with  his  comrades,  but,  as  in  savagery,  the  ethics 
of  the  boy  with  Ms  'gang'  is  different  from  that  with  other 
boys.  It  is  the  old  clan  ethics.  This  idea  that  loyalty  is  due 
only  to  one's  tribe,  and  that  other  people  are  enemies,  and  other 
people's  property  is  legitimate  prey,  is  just  the  spirit  which 
makes  the  'gang'  dangerous,  and  which  suggests  the  need  of 
teaching  a  universal  sociality,  and  of  transforming  the  clan  alle- 
giance into  a  chivalry  toward  all.  The  clan  is  a  step  higher 
than  individualism  ;  I  would  recognize  it,  but  I  would  lead  its 
members  to  be  knights  rather  than  banditti." 

"The  age  which  the  boy  has  reached,"  says  Joseph  Lee,  "is 
that  where  Sir  Launcelot,  the  knight-errant,  the  hero  of  single 
combat,  is  developing  into  Arthur,  the  loyal  king." 

This  ethical  dualism  is  a  phase  of  that  peculiar  self-con- 
sciousness and  desire  for  show,  to  make  an  impression,  at  this 


170  KKLKJIOl'S  EDUCATION 

age.  Tlic  youth  is  particular  that  his  gloves  shall  be  new  and 
spotless,  but  is  not  so  insistent  that  there  shall  be  clean  hands 
nnder  the  gloves.  This  enters  into  his  religion  and  is  the  ex- 
])lanation  of  the  fact  that  the  ritual  of  this  period  differs  largely 
from  the  ritual  of  the  Kindergarten  and  the  Primary.  The 
ritualism  of  the  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Periods  is  the  ritual- 
ism of  symbolism,  with  that  deeper  mystical  meaning  which  ap- 
peals to  the  very  young  child.  '^Fhe  ritual  of  the  Adolescent  is 
the  ritual  of  Show,  "an  outward  and  visible  sign,"  as  it  were,  of 
"an  inward  and  spiritual  grace."  The  life  may  not  accord  with 
the  profession,  and  yet  often  the  only  thing  to  hold  the  life  is 
the  profession.  Teachers  and  clergy,  as  well  as  parents,  should 
realize  this  condition  and  be  very  patient  with  the  inconsistent 
lad  or  maiden. 

T)r.  Butler  thinks  that  about  the  age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen, 
our  i)upirs  interest  in  private  prayer  needs  to  be  strengthened. 
It  must  be  done  with  devout  carefulness,  or  we  may  do  more 
harm  than  good.  1  know  of  no  better  method  than  that  of  a 
young  teacher  of  hoys,  whose  statement  I  condense :  "One  week 
before  a  talk  on  Prayer,  and  before  I  have  announced  the  sub- 
ject, I  hand  each  boy  an  envelope,  say  the  contents  are  confiden- 
tial, and  I  know  he  will  comply,  as  a  personal  favor.  In  each 
envelope  is  a  note,  saying  that  T  am  subject  to  certain  tempta- 
tions, and  that  I  am  liable  to  discouragement.  I  request  that, 
in  saying  his  evening  prayers,  he  will  mention  me  to  the 
Heavenly  Father,  and  will  continue  this  until  our  next  meeting. 
I  add,  that  by  carrying  out  this  rc(|uest  he  is  helping  me  more 
than  he  can  fully  understand.  It  is  remarkable  how  the  boys, 
aged  from  fourteen  to  seventeen — a  time  when  many  boys  who 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  daily  prayer  are  gradually  relinquish- 
ing it — respond  to  this  personal  request.  Without  asking,  I 
discern  by  the  warmth  of  their  greeting,  or  by  some  remark, 
that  they  are  responding  to  what  is.  in  most  cases,  an  entirely 
new  conception  of  private  prayer — that  of  praying  for  someone 
outside  of  their  own  family.  In  some  cases,  boys  who  have  al- 
ready discontinued  daily  prayers,  are  led  to  resume  them.  When 
the  day  comes  for  the  talk  on  Prayer  all  are  better  prepared  to 
listen  and  learn  from  it  what  I  am  able  to  offer.  As  I  have  not 
neglected  to  bear  them  in  mind  daily,  a  sympathy  springs  up 


THK   STAIJKS   OF   DEVELOPMENT  171 

between  us  whicli  was  not  a|)|);ii\Tit  bi'fore.     A  channel  to  the 
boy's  soul  has  opened." 

Burbank's  Views  on  Training. 

"llfi-c  let  iiic  say  that  the  wave  of  public  dishonesty  which 
seems  to  be  sweei)ini>-  over  this  count ly  is  chielly  due  to  a  hick 
of  projjer  trainin<2: — bn'eding.  it  you  will — in  the  formative 
years  of  litV".  Be  dishonest  with  a  child,  whether  it  is  your 
ehihl  or  some  other  j)t'rson"s  child — dishonest  in  word  or  look  or 
deed,  and  you  have  started  a  i^:rafter.  tJ rafting,  or  stealing — 
for  that  is  the  bett(M-  word — will  never  be  taken  up  by  the  man 
whose  formative  years  have  been  spent  in  an  atmosphere  of 
absolute  honesty.  Xor  can  you  be  dishonest  with  a  child  in 
thouglit.  The  child  reads  your  motives  as  no  other  lunnan  being 
reads  them.  He  sees  into  your  own  heart.  The  child  is  tlie 
purest,  truest  thing  in  the  world.  It  is  absolute  truth;  that's 
why  we  love  children.  They  know  instinctively  whether  you  are 
true  or  dishonest  with  them  in  thought  as  well  as  in  deed;  you 
cannot  escape  it.  The  cliild  may  not  always  show  its  knowledge, 
but  its  judgment  of  you  is  unerring.  Its  life  is  stainless,  open  to 
receive  all  impressions,  just  as  is  the  life  of  the  plant,  only  far 
more  pliant  and  responsive  to  influences,  and  to  influences  to 
which  no  plant  is  capable  of  being  responsive.  Upon  the  child 
before  the  age  of  ten  we  have  an  unparalleled  opportunity  to 
work;  for  nowhere  else  is  there  material  so  plastic." 

QUESTIONS   FOR   THOUGHT  AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  i.s  tlio  significaiu'o  of  Awkuanlnoss  in  tlio  Adolescent  Period? 

2.  What  Phy.sical  Dangers  are  Prominent? 
.■].    How  would  you  meet  the.se  dangers? 

4.  What  Mental   Characteristies  are  noted? 

").  How  can  Ideals  he  used? 

ti.  Define  and  descril)e  the  phenomena  of  "Storm  and  Stress." 

7.  \Miat  is  "Conversion,"  and  how  is  it  to  he  met? 

8.  Draw  the  "Conversion  Curve." 

9.  Of  what  significance  is  the  "Gang  Age"? 

10.  Define  Conscience  and  defend  your  definition. 

11.  How  does  "Will"  manifest  itself  now? 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE   STAGES   OF   DEVELOPMENT    (Continued). 

Later  Adolescence — Manhood — Relation  of  Mind  and  Body — 
Types — Temperament. 

Adolescence,  Later  Stages:    Books  under  Chap.  IX. 

Tub  Tbaciikr,  the  Child,  and  the  Book.     Schauffler.     pp.  170-177. 

*TiiE  Child  and  the  Hible.      HuhhcU.      p.  19. 

*Thb  Boy  Problem.     Forhush.     pp.   151-169. 

Education  and  Like.     Baker. 

•The  Spiuitital  Life.     Coe. 

•The  I'sychology  of  Religion.     Starbuclc. 

Sttccessward.     liok.     pp.  119-135. 

•Pedagogical  Bible  School.     Coe.     pp.  140-170. 

•Bible  Classes,     ^^ee.     pp.  19-35. 

Manhood  and  Womanhood: 

•Teacher  Training.     Roads,     pp.  37-38. 
The  Psychology  of  IIbligion.     Starbuck. 
The  Spiritual  Life.     Coe. 

Mind  and  Body: 

•The  Child  and  the  Bible.     Huhbell.     pp.  16-20. 

Education.     Spencer.     Chapter  IV. 

The  Meaning  of  Education.     Butler.     Chapter  I. 

•The  Study  of  Children.     Warner. 

The  Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education.     Harris.     Chapter  XH. 

Talks  on  I'edagogics.     Parker.     Chapter  L 

•Bible  Classes.     See.     p.  19/f. 

•Childhood.     Birney.     pp.  45-47. 

Thinking,  Feeling,  Doing.     Soriptnre.     p.  73. 

Principles.     Thorndike.     pp.  14-15. 

•A  Primer  of  I'eaching.     Adam.').     All. 

Temperament: 

•The  Study  of  Children.     Warner,     pp.   154-188. 

The   Stitdy  of  Character.     Bain.     Chapter  XXVI. 

•Our  Temperaments.     Steivart. 

Mental  Development.     Bahhrin.     pp.  181,  187,  190. 

•The   Boy    Problem.     Forbush.     pp.    28-30. 

Principles.     Thorndike.     p.  94. 

Pedagogical  Bible  School.     JTaslett.     p.  223flf. 

Thinking,  Feeling,  Doing.     Scripture,     p.  32. 

•Childhood.     Birney.     pp.  171ff. 

IV. — Fourth  Period,  Later  Adolescence,  Age  of  Decision,  Philosophic 
Insight,  18  to  25. 

Now   in   the   after-peace   of   the   budding   manhood,   with 


THE    STACJES   OF   DEVELOPMENT  173 

faith  and  doubts  at  rest;  with  Will  and  Action  in  power;  new 
thoughts  of  the  permanence  of  life  come  to  the  youth — the 
dominance  of  law,  the  grasp  of  the  broad  View-of-the-world, 
whieli  Philosopliic  Insight  now  unfolds.  Family  life  appeals 
(o  him.  Habits  of  business  are  now  formed.  The  typical  as- 
pects and  mannerisms,  peculiar  to  each  profession,  as  carpenter, 
tradesman,  minister,  artist,  etc.,  are  appearing.  The  final  turns 
and  twists  of  life  are  now  well-nigh  unalterable,  set  and  fixed 
to  the  limit  of  the  grave. 

The  late  Professor  Davidson  has  said  that  every  man  is  his 
own  world-builder.  No  two  men  see  the  world  alike.  The 
world  is  the  same  objectively,  but  your  view  of  the  world  is  not 
my  view  of  the  world,  because  your  "apperceptive  basis" — that  is, 
the  ideas  that  you  have  accumulated,  the  education  that  you 
have  passed  through,  the  environment  which  has  been  your  tutor 
— have  not  been  the  same  as  mine.  If  your  view  of  the  world  were 
the  same  as  my  view  of  the  world,  your  education  and  your  life 
would  have  been  the  same  as  mine.  Probably  your  very  face 
would  look  like  mine;  but  as  your  education  has  differed,  your 
view  of  the  world,  that  is,  your  apperception  of  it,  necessarily 
differs  from  mine.  And  so  whatever  view  of  the  world,  whatever 
philosophy  of  life  the  youth  in  later  adolescence  may  have 
reached,  it  is  his  own  philosophy,  his  own  view  of  the  world. 
Good  or  bad  to  him  the  world  is  as  he  sees  it  after  the  great 
reconstruction  period.  We  are  responsible  for  the  presentation 
of  the  world  to  him,  and,  in  a  sense,  responsible  also  for  the 
groundwork  that  he  possesses  to  appreciate  the  world. 

V. — Adult  Age,  Manhood  and  Womanhood,  25  and  onward. 

Little  room  for  mucli  education,  as  Character-building  and 
Habit-forming  factors,  now  remains.  Henceforth  it  can  be  but 
an  intellectual  equipment.  It  is  not  likely  to  affect  life  very 
extensively,  though  some  gain  and  advance  or  retrogression  may 
result.  Eemember  in  dealing  with  adults  that  whatever  their 
idiosyncracies  may  be,  you  cannot  alter  them  either  by  advice  or 
complaint.  You  may  change  particular  actions,  but  seldom  the 
general  trend.  The  dam  may  block  the  stream,  but  never  curb 
the  spring.  The  young  lady  who  says,  "T  will  marry  John  in 
order  to  reform  him,"'  had  better  reform  him  before  she  marries 


174 


KELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 


him,  as  she  ahiiost  certainly  will  iiot  succeed.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  she  will  succeed  very  much  even  before  marriage.  Occu- 
pations always  react  on  life,  and  men  become  narrow  in  their 
own  ruts.  You  may  broaden;  but  not  divert  them.  ]\[oral 
improvement,  especially  with  strong  will-power,  may  lake  place; 
but  onlv  bv  gradual  substitution  of  new  habits,  with  the  old  ones 
growing  deeper  and  harder  each  year.  It  takes  upheavals  to 
alter  lives  then. 


Summary  of  the  Chief  Characte 

PHYSICAL. 

reriod  of  rapid  growth. 
Heart  increases  in  size. 
Larnyx  and  lungs  enlarge. 
I^arge  arteries  increase. 
Muscles  grow  rapidly. 
Vocal  chords  elongate. 
Shoulders  broaden  out. 
The  senses  are  strengthened. 
Circulation  becomes  more  rapid. 
The  skin  becomes  more  sensitive. 
The  voice  is  deepened. 
Needs  more  sleep  and  food. 
The  beard  grows. 
Hrain  stops  growing  by  1.^). 
Changes  peculiar  to  the  male. 
I'eriod  of  least  mortality. 


ristics  of  Adolescence. 

MENTAL    AND    SPIRITUAL. 

Assertion  of  selfhood,  variously  de- 
scribed as  self-assertion,  self-suffi- 
ciency, self-feeling,  and  braggado- 
<'io.  lOgoism  developing  later  into 
altruism. 

Social  organization  with  same  sex. 
Also  known  as  gang  instinct. 

Team  work  in  games. 

Uestlessness  of  mind. 

lOnthusiasm  in  sports. 

Appearance  of  fighting  instinct. 

I''ull  energy. 

Secretiveness  toward  jjarents  and 
others. 

I'^eeling  of  loneliness. 

Desire  for  sympathy. 

The  wandering   instinct. 

Longing  for  the  remote  and  strange. 

Possessed  by  Ideals. 

Desire  for  quick  results. 

Bashful  with  other  sex. 

Time  of  hero  worship. 


Tabular  Summary  of  All  Developmental  Traits   (i.e..  In- 
stincts to  be  trained  into  Habits)  : 


PRIMAHY    AGE. 
1-6 

1-3,  Instinct. 
.3-G,  Impulse. 

Restlessness 

Activity 

Savagery 

Symbolic  Play 

Timidity 

Sex-Unconscious 


CHILDHOOD. 

6-12 
6-9,  Imitation. 
9-12,  Habit. 


YOUTH  OR  ADOLESCENCE. 
12-18 

12-15,  Moral  Crisis. 
15-18,  Ideality. 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 


Less  Restlessness 

Still  Active 

Truancy 

Desire  for  Reality 

Daring  Courage 

Sex-Repellent 


Awkwardness 

Less  Active 

Adventure 

Constructiveness 

Recklessness 

Sex-Attracted 

Bodily  Changes 


TriJ-:   .STA(!KS   OK    l)i:\  KI.OI'MKNT 


17.') 


Frankness 

Faith  and  Trust 

Self-unconscious 

Dependent 

Imafjination   Arc 

Imitates  I'arents 

No  Time  Thouglit 

FRoistic  Feelings 

Concrete 

Story  Ago 

Curiosity 

No  Conscience 

Believes  Every tbinjj 


Mi;\TAL     CIIAI{A('l'i:inSTICS. 

Sliyness 
ln(lc'|)endence 
IndifTerent 
Group  Age 
Memory  Age 
Imitates   Companions 
I-ives  in  To-day 
Desire  for  Affeclioii 
Hero  Ago 
liiograpliy  Ago 
Collect  ing  Instinct 
Conscience   Kising 
Demands   Ueality 


Diplomatic 
Confidence 
S(>lf-conscious 
•■<;ang"  or  "Set"  Age 
riiilosophic  Age 
Imitates  Noble  Deeds 
Ideals 

"Chum"    Friendships 
Abstract  Age 
History  Age 
Systematization 
Conscience  Set 
Age  of  Doubts 
Storm  and   Stress 
Desire  for   Kitual 
Ethical    Dualism 
Conversion   Crisis 
Sex  Dangers 
On   "Fool's   Hill" 

Relation   Between   Mind   and   Body. 

Mill!  i>  a  uiiil.  although  possessed  of  Body,  Mind,  and 
Spirit;  and,  in  liis  development,  all  three  should  be  trained  and 
exereised  in  harmonious  proportion  to  each  other,  for  there  is  a 
most  intimate  interdependence  between  the  three.  It  will  not 
do  to  educate  the  ^Mind  for  the  sake  of  the  Spirit's  welfare,  and 
neglect  the  Body ;  for  the  Body  affects  strongly  both  the  j\Iind 
and  the  Spirit.  "Sana  Mens  in  Corpore  Sano,"  is  more  supreme 
than  ever  to-day,  in  this  age  of  Strenuous  Muscular  Christianity. 

Dr.  Warner,  in  his  Study  of  Children,  illustrates  the 
common  types  of  degenerate  or  feeble  bodies,  which  create  feeble 
minds.  Encourage  all  healthy,  manly  exercise  and  sports,  for 
they  are  ennobling  and  uplifting.  Care  of  the  body,  fresh  air, 
cleanliness,  sutlicient  sleep,  and  proper  proportion  of  food,  are 
of  more  influence  than  sermons  in  securing  alertness  of  atten- 
tion, in  developing  habits  of  purity  of  thought  and  of  action,  and 
in  the  avoidance  of  the  evils  of  impurity,  use  of  acohol  and  to- 
bacco, and  enervation  of  brain  and  body. 

Enfeebled  bodies  result  in' Malnutrition,  Stuma,  even  In- 
sanity ;  and  always  cause  listlessness,  inattention,  poor  reasoning, 
and  loss  of  memory.  It  is  certainly  fully  within  the  province 
of  the  Sunday  School  Teacher  to  take  an  interest  in  the  physical 
condition  of  the  children  ;  visiting  their  homes,  advising  and  cor- 


176  RF>[.IGIOUS  EDICATION 

recting  injurious  conditions,  whenever  possible.  Tlie  physical 
culture  and  out-door  games  of  the  present  generation  have  done 
much  to  improve  our  American  Youth,  and  we  are  already  be- 
holding a  much  taller  and  stronger  race.  Yet  tenement  homes, 
rapid  living,  stimulating  foods,  and  late  hours  are  producing  a 
harvest  of  nervous,  fidgety,  restless,  over-active,  over-sensitive, 
or  under-active,  feeble-minded  children.  It  is  estimated  that 
one  out  of  every  fifteen  children  from  the  tenements  will  be 
"defectives"  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  In  Sunday  Schools, 
special  classes  of  such  peculiar  children  should  be  formed,  in 
which  they  are  dealt  with  apart  by  themselves,  under  particularly 
qualified  teachers.  A  careful  distinction  should  be  noted,  how- 
ever, between  these  abnormal  conditions  and  (a)  the  active  rest- 
lessness of  rapidly  growing  childhood,  which  is  seen  previous  to 
puberty;  (h)  the  awkwardness  and  shy  sensitiveness  of  puberty; 
(c)  the  giggling,  self-conscious,  seemingly  silly  period  of  girl- 
hood in  the  'teens.  All  of  these  periods  are  transitory,  and  are 
certain  to  be  outgrown.  It  would  be  well  for  every  teacher  to 
glance  at  the  illustrations  in  Warner's  book,  in  order  to  recognize 
the  most  common  types  of  abnormal  children. 

Beyond  abnormal  conditions,  temporary  or  chronic  illness, 
indigestion,  disturbance  of  liver,  eye-strain  causing  headaches, 
and  a  number  of  common  physical  disturbances  needing  the 
physician  rather  than  the  priest,  medicine  rather  than  sermons, 
are  frequently  the  fruitful  causes  of  ill-temper  and  general 
wickedness.  It  is  beginning  to  be  recognized  to-day  that  the 
Day  School  is  responsible  for  the  physical  condition  of  the  chil- 
dren, and  compulsory  treatment  for  trachoma  (granular  eye- 
lids), pink-eye,  glasses,  adenoid  growths  in  the  nose  and  throat, 
is  the  rule  in  our  large  cities.  The  Sunday  School  teacher  is 
equally  responsible,  and  her  duties  do  not  end  with  the  teaching 
of  the  Sunday  School  lesson.  The  child  who  sits  forward  with 
staring  eyes  and  holds  the  book  too  close  in  reading,  probably 
needs  glasses,  of  which  no  one  has  thought.  A  frank  talk  with 
the  parents  is  the  part  of  the  earnest  teacher.  The  inattentive 
child  may  be  "deaf  in  one  ear  and  hard  of  hearing  in  the  other," 
and  middle  ear  disease  that  begins  in  youth  is  a  serious  affection. 
Nervous  children  should  have  more  rest  and  food  and  sleep.  A 
child  of  good  nerve  stamina  ought  to  be  able  to  stand  with  feet 


THE   STAOKS   OK   DEVELOl'MKNT  177 

together,  arms  folded,  body  erect  and  not  sway  at  all  when  the 
eyes  are  closed.  Maintaining  a  similar  position,  the  child  ought 
to  be  able  to  put  the  arm  at  once  out  at  full  length,  horizontally, 
in  front  of  him  without  a  drop  or  rise  of  the  wrist  or  without  a 
tremor.  Dr.  Warner  gives  many  similar  tests  which  can  be 
r(>adily  undertaken  by  even  an  unskilled  teacher.  The  Sunday 
School  teacher  should  be  concerned  with  the  whole  child  and  be 
interested  in  his  entire  development  and  sound  health  of  body, 
as  well  as  of  mind  and  soul. 

Professor  Thorndike  says:  "There  will  be  barely  a  class  of 
thirty  scholars  without  two  or  more  children  who  have  defects 
of  vision  or  hearing  so  great  as  to  seriously  impair  their  power 
of  receiving  stimuli.  If  the  pupils  so  affected  were  themselves 
conscious  of  their  defects,  not  so  much  harm  would  be  done; 
but  in  point  of  fact  college  students  are  found  who  are  totally 
deaf  in  one  ear,  or  blind  in  one  eye,  or  markedly  color  blind, 
without  being  in  the  least  aware  of  it,  and  in  the  first  years  of 
school  life  a  large  proportion  of  the  children  defective  in  hear- 
ing or  vision,  are  entirely  unaware  of  their  difficulty.  Teachers 
should  observe  carefully  any  children  who  habitually  breathe 
through  the  mouth,  and  should  cooperate  with  parents  to  secure 
medical  advice  for  them.  In  many  cases  the  safe  and  easy  opera- 
tion of  removing  such  growths  bring  a  marked  improvement  in 
the  comfort  and  school  progress  of  the  pupil."  Teachers  should 
especially  confer  with  parents  about  the  child's  sleep.  Mrs. 
Birney  says:  "A  child  from  six  to  eight  years  old  should  get 
eleven  or  twelve  hours  of  sleep.  A  child  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
years  should  get  nine  or  ten  hours'  sleep.  Does  he  get  that 
amount?  Does  he  sleep  free  from  draughts?  With  access  to 
fresh  air?  Where  it  is  only  moderately  cold?  Before  going  to 
bed  does  he  eat  only  food  easily  digested?  Does  he  go  to  bed 
free  from  mental  excitement  or  anxiet)'?" 
Effects  of  Body  on  Mind  and  Spirit. 

"These  are  of  such  a  common  character,"  says  See,  "and 
are  so  apparent  to  all,  as  to  call,  in  most  cases,  for  no  elabora- 
tion: 

"Indigestion  causing  depression  of  mind. 

"Bodily  fatigue  producing  mental  inaction. 

"Certain  physical  diseases  causing  melancholia. 


178  RKLKilOl'S   KDI'CATIOX 

"An  over-wrouglil  nervous  system  resulting  in  peevish 
temper. 

"A  hearty  ineiil  superinducing  drowsiness. 

"Stimulants  taken  into  the  body  exciting  the  mind. 

"Narcotics  taken  into  the  body  dulling  the  mind." 

"Mental  action,"  says  Dr.  Roark,  "may  be  wholly  suspended 
by  reducing  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  brain  through  a  pressure 
upon  the  arteries  of  the  neck,  far  short  of  that  necessary  to  pro- 
duce death.  A  clot  of  blood  no  larger  than  a  wheat  grain,  or  a 
minute  splinter  of  bone  from  the  skull  pressing  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  brain,  is  suflficient  to  change  a  man  of  culture  into 
an  ignoramus,  or  one  of  eminent  character  into  a  moral  wreck." 

Effect  of  Mind  and  Spirit  on  Body. 

In  Thk  'J'kachinc  of  Bible  Classes,  See  renuirks:  "Some 
familiar  illustrations  of  the  effect  of  mind  and  spirit  on  body,  to 
which  the  student  may  add  from  his  experience,  are  as  follows : 

"Extreme  pleasure  or  pain  causing  loss  of  appetite. 

"Conversely,  joy  and  hope  promoting  health  and  vigor. 

"Mental  worry  causing  physical  weakness. 

"The  mention  of  fruit  causing  the  mouth  to  water. 

"Mental  fatigue  producing  physical  weariness. 

"Great  fear  turning  the  hair  white. 

"A  sudden  fright  paralyzing  the  heart  or  brain. 

"Anger  producing  redness  or  pallor. 

"In  this  connection  it  should  he  noted  that  the  various 
emotions  have  characteristic  bodily  expressions.  For  example, 
anger  is  manifested. by  tense  muscles  and  clinched  fists;  mental 
excitement  by  trembling  limbs.  Spencer  calls  our  attention  to 
the  fact  that  'digestion  of  the  food,  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
and  through  these,  all  other  organic  processes,  are  profoundly 
affected  by  cerebral  excitement." 

"Annie  Payson  Call  says  that  she  has  made  nurses  prac- 
tise lifting  while  impressing  the  fact  forcibly  upon  them  by 
repetition  before  lifting  and  during  the  process  of  raising  the 
body  and  lowering  it,  that  they  must  use  entirely  the  muscles 
of  the  legs.  This  use  of  the  brain  in  the  guidance  of  the  body 
has  made  the  work  of  lifting  the  burden  one  of  comparative 
ease.    Dr.  Gulick,  in  his  Studies  of  Adolescent  Boyhood,  states 


THE   STA(iKS   OK    DKVKLOI'MENT  IT'.l 

that  students  have  a  stronger  grasp  of  the  liand  than  manual 
laborers,  because  the  former  use  the  nerve  centres,  which  supply 
the  stimulus  to  the  muscles  which  operate  the  hand,  the  most. 

"This  connection  undoubtedly  accounts  for  frciiuent  mind 
and  faith  cures.  As  on  the  one  hand  actual  illness  may  be  pro- 
duced in  people  by  the  frequent  repetiti(ni  of  the  statement  by 
different  persons  to  them  that  they  do  not  look  well,  so  on  the 
other  hand,  actual  illness  nuiy  be,  and  oftentimes  is,  subdued  and 
overcome  by  causing  the  mind  to  believe  that  no  disease  exists. 
A  study  of  such  mind  and  faith  cures  as  Faith  Healing,  Ciiiiis- 
TiAJsr  Science  and  Kixdkkd  Phenomena,  by  Dr.  James  M. 
Buckley,  would  serve  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  this  influ- 
ence of  the  mind  and  spirit  on  the  body.  Hypnotism  is  another 
manifestation  of  this  influence." 

Dr.  Scripture  says:  "Experiments  have  shown  also  that  the 
greatest  possible  effort  depends  on  the  general  mental  condition. 
The  greatest  possible  etTort  is  greater  on  the  average  among  the 
intelligent  Europeans  than  among  the  Africans  or  Malays.  It 
is  greater  for  intelligent  mechanics  than  for  common  laborers 
who  work  exclusively,  but  unintelligently,  with  the  hands.  In- 
tellectual excitement  increases  the  power.  A  lecturer  actually 
becomes  a  stronger  man  as  he  steps  on  the  platform.  A  school- 
boy hits  harder  when  his  rival  is  on  the  same  playground." 

Types  of  Children. 

We  all  recognize  that  Classes  of  any  line  of  objects  pre- 
sent certain  similar  characteristics,  and  that  all  individuals  in 
each  class  have  dijferences  of  peculiarities  that  distinguish  or 
differentiate  from  others  in  tlie  same  class.  Men,  for  instance, 
are  a  type.  They  have  numy  similarities.  Yet  each  differs  from 
every  other  man.  In  a  bushel  of  wheat  all  grains  look  alike. 
Yet  all,  microscopically,  differ. 

In  the  human  family  we  see  manifold  types.  There  are 
types  of  Eace.  All  Chinese  look  alike  to  those  who  do  not  know 
them.  Yet  no  Chinese  boy  mistakes  some  stranger  for  his 
father.  Among  Americans,  we  see  Yankees,  Southerners,  West- 
erners, Cowboys;  we  have  types  of  bankers,  salesmen,  clerks, 
doctors,  bookmakers,  horsemen,  artists,  carpenters,  etc.,  each 
differing  most  conspicuously   from  the  other   types    (see  Gal- 


180  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

ton's  Hereditary  Genius)  ;  we  have  age  types  by  which  one  age 
of  civilization  differs  from  all  its  predecessors  and  followers 
(see  Kidd's  Social  Evolution)  ;  we  have  different  religious 
types  of  many  and  various  forms ;  we  have  marked  temperamental 
types,  as  quick,  slow,  defective,  normal,  concrete,  abstract,  audi- 
tory, etc.;  we  have  growth  and  development  types,  which  are 
what  particularly  concern  us  here.  Within  the  type  much  differ- 
ence exists.  Learn  the  type  of  childhood,  and  then  master  the 
individual  differences  or  idiosyncracies  within  it. 

A  hundred  babies  seem  alike,  in  the  type  of  Infancy.  Yet 
no  mother  fails  to  know  her  own. 

Sex  Differences. 

In  capacities  no  great  differences  between  the  male  and  fe- 
male types  have  been  demonstrated.  The  most  marked  is  the 
female  superiority  in  the  perceptive  and  retentive  capacities; 
girls  for  instance,  notice  small  details,  remember  lists  and  spell 
better  than  boys. 

Although  the  male  and  female  types  are  closely  alike  in 
intellectual  capacities,  there  is  an  important  difference  in  the 
deviations  from  the  type  in  the  two  cases,  namely,  that  the  males 
deviate  more.  The  highest  males  in  any  quality  are  more  gifted 
than  any  of  the  women.  Thus,  though  girls  in  general  rank  as 
high  or  higher  than  boys  in  high  school  and  college,  they  less 
often  lead  the  class;  thus  there  are  far  more  eminent  intellects 
among  men  than  among  women  and  also  twice  as  many  idiots. 

Motor  and  Sensory  Types. 

Professor  Adams  remarks:  "(a)  Motor  children  are  those 
that  respond  very  readily  to  any  outside  influence,  and  this 
response  takes  the  form  of  immediate  action.  They  are  quick, 
eager,  alert,  they  waste  no  time  in  making  up  their  minds,  and 
immediately  act  upon  whatever  conclusion  they  arrive  at.  They 
are  quick  in  temper  as  in  intellect.  On  the  other  hand  they  lack 
preseverance.  They  learn  quickly,  but  do  not  retain  particularly 
well  what  they  have  learnt.  As  a  compensation,  they  do  not 
retain  anger  long,  and  are  generally  more  forgiving  than  sen- 
sory children.  The  defects  of  the  motor  child  are  hastiness  in 
forming  judgments — he  jumps  at  conclusions — and  a  certain 


THE  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  ISl 

fickleness,  wliieli,  however,  does  not  prevent  him  from  being 
usually  rather  attractive. 

"(b)  Sensory  children  are  slower  in  responding  to  any 
stimulus.  They  receive  all  manner  of  impressions,  and  make 
no  sign.  They  are  passive  as  compared  witii  the  motors,  but 
their  minds  are  active  enough,  and  their  conclusions  are  often 
sounder  than  those  so  speedily  reached  by  the  motors.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  two  temperaments  is  most  marked  in  the 
greater  tenacity  of  the  sensory  children.  Their  weakness  lies  in 
a  certain  timidity  born  of  the  desire  to  see  all  sides  of  a  ques- 
tion before  coming  to  a  decision.  The  resulting  slowness  and 
hesitation  render  sensory  children  less  attractive  to  the  ordinary 
adult,  and  to  the  superficial  teacher  who  desires  immediate  re- 
sults. But  the  thoughtful  teacher,  who  studies  and  understands 
child  nature,  finds  that  on  the  whole  his  best  work  can  be  done 
with  the  less  immediately  responsive  children.  Girls  have  usu- 
ally the  motor  temperament,  and  boys  the  sensory.  But  to  apply 
this  distinction  without  reference  to  the  individuals  of  a  given 
class  would  be  very  unwise." 

Temperament. 

Types  of  Temperament. — Says  Dr.  Forbush:  "The  Influ- 
ence of  Temperament  on  the  phenomena  of  development  is  not 
to  be  neglected.  Dr.  Coe  has  made  a  most  suggestive  study  of 
this,  but  has  applied  it  chiefly  to  the  adult.  Although  Lotze  has 
made  an  ingenious  and  often  observable  parallel  between  the 
sanguine  temperament  in  childhood  and  the  sentimental  in  ado- 
lescence, the  diversities  of  temperamental  nature  which  are  to  be 
permanent  are  already  visible.  The  readiness  but  triviality  of 
the  sanguine;  the  cheerful  conceit  of  the  sentimental;  the 
prompt,  intense  response  of  the  choleric;  and  the  rmninative 
nature  of  the  phlegmatic  temperaments  are  each  noticeable  in 
individual  boys.  The  'Child-Types'  which  have  been  classified 
are  only  differences  and  combinations  of  temperament." 

President  Butler  says  in  his  Class  Lectures  :  "We  know 
that  Temperaments  exist  and  are  of  importance  to  the  teacher 
in  the  main  outlines,  but  we  really  must  acknowledge  that  we 
know  very  little  about  the  subject,"  which  is  but  another  way  of 


1S2  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

saying  that  Science  has  not  reduced  it  to  laws  yet,  hut  recog- 
nizes the  reliability  of  the  main  facts. 

Temperament  seems  to  lie  in  a  domain  intermediate  be- 
tween Physiognomy  and  Physiological  Psychology.  It  is  not  a 
psychological  notion,  but  a  medical  one.  The  average  Psycholo- 
gist is  afraid  of  it  because  it  seems  to  him  to  trench  too  much 
upon  Phrenology,  though  Professors  Wundt  and  Tiehner  make 
note  of  its  importance,  placing  it  after  the  Emotions.  The  old 
Greeks  originated  the  notion,  Galen  and  Hippocrates  exploited 
it.  They  saw  a  fourfold  relationship  between  mind  and  body, 
whereby  the  same  disease,  for  instance,  affected  variously  dif- 
fering temperaments.  The  best  modern  division  is,  1,  Sanguine; 
2,  Bilious;  3,  Lymphatic;  4,  Nervous.  The  tlieory  is,  however, 
the  same,  that  some  physical  condition  of  the  body  influences 
and  controls  the  feelings. 

There  are  very  few  examples  of  unmixed  Temperaments, 
and  it  is  rare  to  find  the  pure  type.  The  usual  mode  is  to  single 
out  the  Nervous  Type  and  set  it  aside.  This  type  is  rapidly 
increasing  in  proportion  in  our  present  period  age.  Observation 
and  experience  are  the  main  aids  at  diagnosis.  Few  books  are 
found  in  English,  though  plenty  in  French,  and  a  few  in  Ger- 
man. 

Good  Physiognomies  (Fowler  and  Wells,  etc.)  give  some 
ireatment  of  it,  and  types  of  faces;  and  Dr.  Warner  in  his  Study 
OK  Children  reproduces  some  pictures  of  types.  Practically,  al- 
though it  is  obscure,  it  concerns  our  whole  treatment  and  atti- 
tude of  behavior  towards  Children.  The  same  mode  of  disci- 
pline will  call  out  vastly  dissimilar  results  in  differing  persons. 
In  one  we  arouse  regret;  in  another  reform  is  wrought:  in  a 
third  naught  but  stubborn  rebellion  and  opposition  respond  to 
our  dealings. 

Parents  cannot  define  it;  but  they  see  its  effects  and  say: 
"T  have  to  treat  this  child  differently  from  the  other  one." 

Tjcsshaft  recognizes  six  among  children  entering  school: 
The  hypocritical,  the  ambitious,  the  quiet  temperaments,  the 
effeminate-stupid,  the  bad-stupid,  the  depressed.  Sugert  names 
fifteen :  Melancholy,  angel-or-devil,  star-gazer,  scatter-brain,  apa- 
thetic, misanthropic,  doubter  and  seeker,  honorable,  critical, 
eccentric,  stupid,  buffoonly-native,  with  feeble  memory,  studious, 


'I'liK  srA(;i;s  ok  dkn'ki^oi'mkn  r  is;; 

Hiid  l)l;isr.  Tlu'sc  chiiractcristics,  with  thcii-  special  relations  to 
sensibilities,  intellect,  and  will,  are  to  he  noted  and  used  as  dia;:;- 
noses  for  individual  treatment. 

According  to  Thorndike:  "The  Combination  of  slowness 
and  weakness  makes  the  lethargic  temperament :  the  eombina- 
tioii  of  intensity  and  nai-rowness  makes  the  familic :  the  coiiihina- 
tion  of  weakness  and  bi-eadth  is  often  the  basis  of  what  we  term 
supcrficiaUty.  Of  the  traditional  four  temperaments,  the  san- 
guine approximates  closely  to  the  combination,  quick-weak- 
broad  ;  the  choleric  approximates  closely  to  the  comhination, 
quick-intense-narrow;  the  phlegmatic  is,  of  course,  slow;  the 
melancholic  or  sentimental  is  weak  and  commonly  somewhat 
narrow  and  slow.  The  traditional  temperaments  emphasize  cer- 
tain emotional  differences,  the  phlegmatic  being  especially  hard, 
and  the  melancholic  or  sentimental  especially  easy  to  excite 
emotionally."' 

Here  are  a  few  suggestions  given  by  Mrs.  Birney :  "The 
sanguine  temperament,  according  to  one  authority,  is  proclaimed 
by  a  tolerable  consistency  of  flesh,  moderate  ])hmipness,  light  or 
chestnut  hair,  great  activity  of  the  arterial  system,  a  strong  full 
and  frequent  pulse,  and  an  animated  countenance.  Persons  thus 
constituted  are  easily  affected  by  external  impressions  and  pos- 
sess greater  energy  than  those  of  the  plegmatic  temperament. 

"The  plegmatic  temperament  is  indicated  by  a  pale,  white 
skin,  fair  hair,  roundness  of  fomi  and  repletion  of  eelluar  tissue. 
The  flesh  is  soft,  the  vital  actions  are  languid.  All  indicate 
slowness  and  weakness  in  the  vegetative,  effective,  and  intellect- 
ual functions. 

"The  external  signs  of  the  nervous  teni perament  are  fine, 
thin  hair,  delicate  health,  more  or  less  emaciation  and  smallncss 
of  the  muscles,  rapidity  in  the  muscular  actions,  vivacity  in  the 
sensations.  The  nervous  system  in  the  individuals  so  constituted 
preponderates  greatly,  and  they  exhibit  extreme  nervous  sensi- 
bility. 

"The  melancholy  temperament  is  characterized  by  black 
hair,  a  dark  yellowish  or  brownish  skin,  black  eyes,  moderately 
full  but  firm  muscles  and  harshly  expressed  form.  Those  en- 
dowed with  this  constitution  have  a  decided  expression  of  counte- 


1S4  KKLIOIOl'S  EDUCATION 

nance.     They  manifest  great  general   activity  and  functional 
energy. 

"It  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  to  see  families  in 
which  discipline  is  administered  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
individual  child. 

"Children  of  sanguine  and  nervous  temperaments  are  very 
receptive,  manifesting  in  their  mentality  the  same  sensibility 
which  is  characteristic  of  their  physical  organism.  They  are 
easily  guided  by  suggestion,  and  parents  who  have  mastered 
this  potent  law  are  not  only  equal  to  emergencies,  but  arc  much 
more  sure  of  the  obedience,  affection,  and  confidence  of  their 
children  than  the  parents  who  mistakenly  force  issues  with  their 
children,  and  who  expect  to  find  in  them  such  self-control  and 
reasoning  powers  as  they  themselves  do  not  possess. 

"The  child  of  nervous  temperament  is  apt  to  be  timid,  and 
his  fears  of  all  kinds  should  be  tenderly  dealt  with.  The  child  of 
nervous  or  sanguine  temperament  who  has  what  is  termed  'Tan- 
trums,' should  be  left  alone,  the  mother  or  nurse  withdrawing 
to  an  adjoining  room  when  their  preventive  measures  have 
failed. 

"The  child  of  phlegmatic  tcjnperament  is  slow  mentally  and 
physically.  He  takes  life  easy,  largely  because  of  his  lack  of 
sensibility.  While  children  of  sanguine  and  nervous  tempera- 
ments should  lead  quiet,  regular  lives,  free  from  mental  or 
physical  strain  or  excitement,  the  phlegmatic  child  needs  stimu- 
lation, and  he  is  positively  benefited  by  pleasurable  excitement 
that  would  be  harmful  in  either  of  the  two  cases." 

Mrs.  Birney  says:  "The  mind  is  marvellously  receptive  to 
suggestion,  the  brain  quick  to  perceive,  the  muscles  to  act.  If 
evil  inclinations  manifest  themselves,  counteract  their  influence, 
not  by  dwelling  upon  them,  but  by  putting  something  else  in 
their  place  in  the  form  of  occupation  or  amusement. 

"While  with  heredity  and  environment  largely  rests  the 
nature  of  the  individual's  development,  it  is  temperament  that 
modifies  both  and  transcends  circumstances.  One  of  the  un- 
ceasing marvels  of  the  world  is  that  it  contains  no  two  human 
beings  exactly  alike.  Just  as  faces  vary,  so  have  we  reason  to 
suppose  that  no  two  brains  are  alike  in  their  mental  capacity; 
and  thus,  while  a  general  knowledge  of  child  nature  is  invalu- 


TIIK    STAGES   OF   DEVELOPMENT  185 

able  to  parents  and  educators,  it  is  highly  effectual  only  when  it 
is  supplemented  by  close  and  continuous  observation  of  the  indi- 
vidual child  it  is  desired  to  help. 

''Now,  for  the  relation  of  temperament  to  discipline,  I  can- 
not do  better  at  this  point  than  to  quote  from  Dr.  Preyer's  In- 
fant Mind.  He  says :  'In  two  of  the  four  temperaments  the  ex- 
citability and  therefore  the  sensitiveness  to  impressions  of  vari- 
ous kinds  is  great;  in  two  of  them  it  is  small.  The  duration  of 
the  after  efl'ect  of  every  impression,  the  tenacity  with  which  the 
memory  image  is  retained,  is,  in  the  melancholy  and  the  nervous, 
surprising,  the  organic  change  in  the  brain  accompanying  it 
being  probably  considerable;  in  the  other  two,  the  sanguine  and 
the  phlegmatic,  this  effect  is  slight.'  " 

Re-Action  Time. 

Temperament  affects  reaction-time,  or  the  quickness  of 
response  to  impressions  from  without.  Dr.  Scripture  says :  "Per- 
sons may  be  divided  into  groups  according  to  their  reaction- 
times.  Four  types  of  persons  are  familiar  to  the  physician. 
The  self-controlled  man  of  abundant  vitality  reacts  quickly  and 
regularly ;  the  phlegmatic  or  relaxed  man  responds  regularly  but 
slowly;  the  excitable  man  of  strong  vitality  gives  quick  but 
variable  responses;  the  neurasthenic  weakling  is  excessively  ir- 
regular and  his  average  reaction-times  are  slower  than  normal." 

Temperament  and  Christianity. 

According  to  Haslett:  "Temperament  has  played  a  very 
influential  role  in  the  history  of  Christianity,  though  that  part 
was  an  undesigned  one.  This  factor  has  not  been  sufficiently 
recognized  in  the  administration  and  instruction  of  the  Church, 
and  yet  it  has  been  powerful  in  both. 

"During  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Church's  History, 
the  sanguine  temperament  ruled  her  thinking  activity.  The 
Church  was  ardent,  hopeful,  interested  in  the  present,  was  easily 
disturbed,  never  missed  an  argument  when  one  was  to  be  had, 
and  wavered  from  view  to  view.  During  the  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  centuries,  the  melancholic  temperament  prevailed  in  the 
Church.  x411  sorts  of  sects  arose.  Feeling  was  prominent.  The 
Church  nearly  went  wild  over  Chiliasm.  As  a  result  of  the  perse- 
cutions of  Diocletian  there  arose  an  overwhelming  desire  for 


ISC.  PvKLlGIOI'S  T:LH'(\4TI0N 

martyrdom.  Many  souglit  a  martyr's  death  because  it  was 
thougiit  to  be  divine  and  the  highest  service.  The  present  was 
vain.  Tlio  future  was  golden.  Then  followed  a  long  reign  of 
the  phlegmatic  tem})erament.  The  dark  ages  shut  out  the  light 
and  joy  of  practical  life.  The  Church  fell  into  a  deliberate 
mood.  Scholasticism  and  monasticism  were  supreme.  Thought 
and  introspection  dominated  the  life  of  the  Church. 

"By  and  by  the  choleric  temperament  gained  control  and 
the  Church  became  active  and  practical.  The  Reformation 
arose  and  awoke  a  slumbering  and  inactive  Church  hierarchy. 
At  the  present  time  the  practical  spirit  is  ruling  everywhere. 
The  Church  is  endeavoring  to  become  practical." 

Professor  Coe,  in  The  Spiritual  Life,  shows  that  the  two 
temperaments  that  have  been  jjivdominant  in  the  Church  are  the 
sanguine  and  the  melancholic.  lie  argues  that  sainthood  and 
the  spiritual  or  devotional  in  the  Church  are  lively  illustrations 
of  the  sentimental,  or  temperament  of  feeling.  The  hymnology 
is  largely  moulded  by  it.  The  result  has  been  a  kind  of  femi- 
nizing of  the  ('hurcli.  She  has  swung  away  from  the  strong, 
robust,  healthy  teachings  of  Jesus  and  Tlis  personal  character- 
istics, and  gone  after  the  sentimental  and  the  ascetic.  "In  the 
course  of  ecclesiastical  development,  however,  this  universally 
human  conception  of  the  religion  of  Christ  has  been  warped 
into  special  temperamental  forms.  What  Jesus  made  so  broad 
has  been  narrowed  down  to  a  fit  of  particular  kind  of  men,  and 
temperamental   differences  have   been   mistaken    for   grades   of 

spirituality Feeling  has  been  unduly  honored  to 

the  relative  neglect  of  thought  and,  especially,  of  action. 

"Religious  orders  have  had  their  birth  in  the  power  of  the 
sentimental  temperament  and  have  been  more  or  less  influenced 
by  it.  Religious  sects  have  sprung  into  existence  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  same  temperament.  Feeling  still  exerts  a  great 
influence  in  the  activity  of  the  Church  at  the  present  time. 
Witness  many  of  the  so-called  revivals  that  are  held  throughout 
the  country  every  year.  One  chief  purpose  seems  to  be  to  move 
people  to  tears  and  deeply  stir  their  emotions;  while  religion 
that  lasts  is  born  of  deep  conviction  and  years  of  trial.  No 
special  temperament  should  be  permitted  to  dominate  the 
Church.     The  deliberative  temperament,  that  by  which  theolo- 


TllK   STACKS   OF    DKVKLOl'MKNL'  1«7 

gies  and  creeds  luive  been  built  up  and  doctrinal  catechisms  pre- 
pared, has  dominated  tlie  Church  aud  the  religious  instruction 
of  the  Church  for  centuries.  This  ought  to  cease.  Other  phases 
of  thought  and  activity  siiould  be  emphasized  and  given  equal 
place  with  the  theological  in  the  life  of  the  Church,  important 
as  this  is.  The  religion  of  Jesus  is  free  from  temperamental 
forms.  With  Him  religion  is  full-rounded,  nuiny-sided,  appeal- 
ing to  the  entire  individual.  Jesus  taught  principles  universal 
in  their  nature  and  which  are  individual  in  their  application. 
They  suit  the  need  of  mankind  and  not  the  need  of  particular 
forms  of  mental  constitution.  And  the  religious  instruction  of 
the  Church  will  not  be  adequate  until  it  makes  proper  provis- 
ion for  all  forms  of  temperament  without  placing  undue  empha- 
>is  iipon  anv  ]iarticular  form." 

A  Working  Table  of  Temperament. 

The  following  table  will  help  greatly  in  deciding  how  to 
deal  with  temperaments,  only  remembering  that  it  is  seldom  that 
we  find  a  pure  or  unmixed  temperament. 

EXCITABILITY.  AKTEK-EKFECT. 

Sanguine.  .  .  .  Ulond    Great  Small 

Phlegmatic. .  lUond   Small  Small 

Nervous Brunette    Great  (Jreat 

Melancholy.  .  Brunette    Small  Great 

Different  races  have  different  characteristics  or  different 
temperaments.  The  Southern  races  are  impulsive,  the  sanguine 
temperament.  The  Northern  races  are  nervous.  The  English 
are  phlegmatic.  Xo  race  is  absolutely  pure  to-day.  The  Eng- 
lish language  is  not  a  pure  language,  but  is  a  mixture,  or  poly- 
glot, so  the  probability  is  that  no  person  has  an  absolutely  pure 
temperament,  and  any  combination  of  two  or  of  all  four  may  be 
found.    That  is  what  makes  temperament  so  hard  to  distinguish. 

The  sangiiine  man,  for  example,  of  large,  robust,  rubicund 
type,  shows  great  excitability  under  any  impression  from  with- 
out, but  little  after  effect  or  response.  An  enormous  275  pound 
man  is  led  around  by  a  little  i>.5  pound  wife.  He  blusters  and 
fumes  and  scolds  at  an  irritation  and  she  smiles  sweetly  at  him, 
knowing  that  ''a  barking  dog  never  bites.''  The  sanguine  man 
will  promise  $50  to  a  church  and  never  give  it.  One  rector  of  a 
sanguine  type  promised  his  lay  reader  a  Christmas  present  for 
four  vears.    As  yet  it  has  failed  to  materialize  at  any  Christmas. 


188  RKLIGIOLS  EDUCATION 

^riie  sanguine  type  means  well,  biit  seldom  acts.  No  amount  of 
prodding  will  hurt.  The  sanguine  child  says:  "If  I  can't  be  in 
the  class  with  Mary  Jane  I  am  not  coming  any  more  to  Sunday 
school."  Do  not  worry,  she  will  pop  up  serenely  the  next  Sun- 
day. A  sanguine  man  is  in  a  tearing  rage  over  an  impudent 
street  car  conductor,  threatening  to  report  him.  The  likelihood 
is  that  he  never  will.    The  sanguine  is  usually  the  blond  type. 

The  phlegmatic,  also  of  the  blond  type,  is  slow  and  de- 
liberate. A  domestic  of  the  phlegmatic  English  type  walked 
deliberately  and  slowly  to  open  the  front  door  when  the  bell 
rang.  Her  successor  was  a  Scotch  girl  of  the  nervous  type. 
When  the  door  bell  rang  she  dropped  everything  and  ran. 

Treatment  that  would  injure  a  nervous  child  will  scarcely 
make  any  impression  on  the  phlegmatic. 

While  punishments  of  this  kind  are  still  indulged  in  by  some 
parents,  dependence  upon  them  implies  that  such  parents  are  yet 
in  the  crudest  stage  of  ignorance  as  to  the  Elements  of  Child- 
Training;  nor  can  they  plead  the  ignorance  of  a  new  develop- 
ment of  this  study;  the  works  of  Jacob  Abbot,  written  about  sixty 
years  ago  and  widely  circulated,  contain  implicitly  enough  about 
rewards,  reproofs,  and  punishments  to  enable  a  capable  parent 
to  pass  from  his  own  age  of  barbarism  to  the  age  of  Enlighten- 
ment. 

The  nervous  temperament,  on  the  other  hand,  exhibits  both 
great  excitability  and  great  after-effect.  Nevous  men  are  the 
ones  who  "make  the  world  go."  They  are  usually  small.  All 
great  generals  have  been  small  in  stature,  energetic,  always  on 
the  go.  They  are  usually  of  the  brunette  type.  Men  tell  them 
they  will  wear  out  if  they  don't  stop  working.  They  may  re- 
mark, "It  is  better  to  wear  out  than  to  rust  out."  But,  if  they 
can  keep  from  worrying,  they  will  not  wear  out  any  faster  than 
the  less  energetic  sanguine  or  phlegmatic.  It  is  not  work  that 
kills,  but  worry.  It  is  noteworthy  that  rectors  of  small  parishes 
seldom  break  down  with  nervous  prostration,  but  those  with 
wealthy  vestries  to  send  them  to  Europe  are  the  ones  to  become 
affected  in  that  way.  No  one  ever  heard  of  a  hard  working 
laboring  man  breaking  down  from  his  nerves.  When  the  ner- 
vous man  says  he  will  do  a  thing,  his  nerves  give  him  no  rest 
until  he  does  it.    The  nervous  man  always  reports  the  conductor. 


THE   STAGES  OF   DEVELOPMENT  IS!) 

Tho  nervous  man  always  redeems  his  gift  pledge.  One  reason 
why  Americans  have  so  much  push  is  because  they  are  essentially 
of  the  nervous  type.  The  nerves,  as  such,  are  a  higher  develop- 
ment in  evolution  than  mere  muscles.  All  races  of  men  to-day 
are  verging  towards  this  higher  type. 

Saddest  of  all  and  the  most  dangerous  is  that  dark  visaged, 
brunette,  melancholy  type.  While  the  melancholy  tempera- 
ment is  not  melancholia,  it  is  always  apt  to  run  into  melan- 
cholia. Melancholia  is  an  almost  incurable  disease  of  the  brain. 
An  inevitable  rule  with  physicians  is  never  to  trust  a  melan- 
cholic. As  soon  as  one  is  fully  convinced  that  the  victim  has 
real  melancholia,  it  is  safest  for  those  around  him,  as  well  as  for 
himself,  to  place  him  in  an  asylum,  or  he  will  be  apt  to  commit 
suicide.  It  is  seldom  that  real  melancholia  is  cured.  Dr.  Paul 
Du  Bois  in  his  new  book,  The  Psychic  Treatment  of  Nervous 
Disorders,  devotes  five  hundred  pages  to  the  consideration  of 
Suggestion  in  functional  nervous  diseases.  He  holds  out  hope  for 
the  early  stages  of  melancholia  under  proper  hypnotic  treatment, 
i.  e.,  hypnotism  as  used  by  physicians;  but  the  melancholic 
temperament  as  a  whole  is  always  looking  at  the  gloomy  side  of 
life,  pessimistic  rather  than  optimistic.  This  temperament  is,  as 
it  were,  always  on  the  verge,  carrying  a  chip  on  the  shoulder. 
Slight  affronts  are  taken  seriously  and  brooded  over,  or,  as  is 
often  the  case,  an  imaginary  affront  or  slight  works  out  serious 
results.  Another  peculiar  thing  is  that  the  person  of  the  sangu- 
ine temperament,  with  its  low  stability  of  will  power,  is  apt  to 
run  into  the  melancholy  temperament. 

In  fact  any  temperament  can  be  changed  into  another 
temperament  by  disease,  or  hjqinotism,  or  one  of  the  exanthe- 
mata. The  best  general  type  is  a  cross  between  the  sanguine 
and  the  nervous,  the  nervous-sanguine,  we  might  term  it,  which 
has  the  optimistic  disposition  of  the  sanguine  and  the  energy 
of  the  nervous.  It  would  be  well  for  teachers  to  study  very 
carefully  in  practical  application  the  consequences  of  the  above 
table.  The  Eev.  Dr.  Worcester's  new  work  on  Relicjton  and 
Medicine  covers  this  subject,  and  is  one  of  the  best  books  for  the 
general  reader. 
A  Suggestion  to  Teachers. 

Look  for  these  types  and  combinations  in  your  classes,  take 


1!»0  RIOIJGIOUS  EDUCATION 

out  your  note-book,  write  the  child's  name  at  the  top  of  the  page 
and  watch  his  development  for  three  montlis.  Keep  notes  of 
your  treatment  of  him  and  the  result.  The  very  fact  that  you 
are  keeping  biographical  notes  makes  you  interested  as  never 
before,  and  will  be  far  more  valuable  than  many  a  course  in 
child  study,  for  you  <ire  learning  to  engage  in  child  study  for 
yourself. 

Prof.   Minot  on   Progress. 

''As  in  every  study  of  biological  facts,  there  is  in  the  study 
of  senescent  mental  stal)ility  the  principle  of  variation  to  be  kept 
in  mind.  Men  are  not  alike.  The  great  majority  of  men  lose 
the  power  of  learning,  doubtless  some  more  and  some  less,  we  will 
say,  at  twenty-ilve  years.  Few  men  after  twenty-five  are  able  to 
learn  much.  They  who  cannot,  become  day  laborers,  mechanics, 
clerks  of  a  mechanical  ordei-.  Others  can  probably  go  on  some- 
Avhat  longer,  and  obtain  higher  positions;  and  there  are  men  who, 
with  extreme  variations  in  endowment,  preserve  the  power  of 
active  and  original  thought  far  on  into  life.  These  of  course  are 
the  exceptional  men,  the  great  men.'' 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  Exj)lain  how  each  man  is  "liis  own  World  Builder." 

2.  Name  the  chief   Physical   and   Mental   Characteristics  of    (n)    Pri- 

mary Age,   (6)   Childhood,   (c)   Adolescence,  and  compare  them. 

3.  How  far  is  the  Sunday  School  Teacher  concerned  with  the  Physical 

Condition   of   Pupils? 

4.  Give  some  effects  of  INIind  on  Body.    Of  Body  on  Mind. 

5.  What  do  we  mean  by  "Types  of  Children,"  and  how  can  Typologj- 

aid  us  in  teaching? 

6.  Discuss  Temperament  and  its  Value. 


PART  IV. 

The  Lesson  and  its  Preparation 

The    Wherewithal  of  Teaching 


CHAPTER  XI. 

HOW   TO    PREPARE   THE    LESSON. 

SU(i(;i:STED   HEADINGS. 

•Bible  Classes.     See.     pp.  11,  17,  9G,  130,  153. 

•Churchman's  Manual.     Butler,     pp.  42,  97,  124,  144,  150. 

The  Teacueu  and  the  Child.     Marks,     pp.  09/f,  81. 

Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.     Gregory,     p.   17. 

The  Teacheu  That  Teaches.     Wells,     p.  20. 

•How  TO  I'LAN  THE  Lesso.n.     Jiroicn.     pp.  27ff,  45,  52. 

Principles  of  1'I^aching.     ThorndUce.     pp.  100-258. 

Hoy  Prorlem.     Forbush.     pp.  100,  113. 

*A  Primer  on  Teaching,     .{(lain.s. 

Essentials  of   Method.     DeGanno. 

•Adult  Classes.     Wood.     All. 

•Sunday  School  Science.     Holmes,     pp.  28-33. 

•How  to  Conduct  the  Recitation.     McMurray. 

Character  Building.     Color,     pp.  123-127. 

The  Foundations  of  Education.     Seeley.     pp.  154-162. 

•A  Syllabus  to  The  Point  of  Contact.     Hervey.     Preface. 

How  to  Prepare  to  Study  the  Lesson. 

1.  There  is  one  tremendous,  primordeal  "First  Step''  for  a 
Sunday  School  Teacher  to  take,  in  commencing  the  preparation 
of  the  Lesson  Study;  and  yet,  strange  to  say,  it  is  the  one  step 
above  all  others  that  many  teachers  entirely  omit.  It  is  Prayer. 
for  if  ever  we  require  the  help  of  God's  Holy  Spirit,  "to  guide 
us  unto  all  Truth,"  "to  take  of  the  things  of  God  and  show  them 
unto  us,"  it  is  here,  where  we  are  preparing  to  guide  other  im- 
mortal souls  than  our  own  into  "the  way  of  Truth,"  into  the 
plains  of  peace.  The  words  of  Holmes  on  this  point  are  most 
inspiring. 

The  first  law  of  the  lesson  is  that  of  Prayer,  not  a  prayer. 
Between  prayer  and  a  prayer  there  is  all  the  difference  that 
there  is  between  heat  and  cold.  A  Prayer  may  be  dead,  cold, 
formal,  lifeless.  Prayer  is  the  spirit  permeating  the  charac- 
ter. Prayer  is  a  state ;  an  atmosphere  surrounding  a  life.  The 
right  knowledge  of  the  Sunday  School  Tjcsson  is  possible  only 


J 94  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

through  the  help  of  the  Spirit.  Prayer  is  the  breath  of  the 
Spirit. 

What  a  teacher  ought  to  do  is  to  kneel  down  at  first  and, 
as  it  were,  bury  the  head  in  the  arm  and  shut  out  the  world. 
It  may  not  be  so  much  what  the  teacher  says,  but  the  atmos- 
phere that  will  pervade  her,  as  a  result  of  that  five  minutes  of 
communion  with  God.  There  will  be  a  zeal,  an  interest,  an 
alertness,  an  application,  a  patience  to  dig  out  details  and  go 
into  the  deepest  research.  The  practical  application  of  the 
spiritual  truth  to  the  lives  of  the  scholars  will  never  come  from 
mere  cold,  intellectual  preparation.  It  needs  God's  Spirit. 
And  the  shorter  the  time  for  preparation,  the  more  necessary  is 
this  primal  period  of  Prayer. 

There  is  another  period  of  Prayer  that  will  come  later  on, 
at  the  close  of  the  lesson.  The  first  was  the  communion  with 
God,  the  getting  in  touch  with  Ilim,  obtaining  His  guidance, 
and  the  atmosphere  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  closing  Prayer, 
after  the  work  has  been  done,  is  a  Prayer  of  Application.  The 
teacher  now  kneels,  and,  with  the  lesson  material  in  mind,  and 
the  individual  scholars,  their  natures  and  their  needs,  in  view, 
she  bears  each  name  personally  before  the  Throne  of  Grace,  that 
His  Spirit  may  prepare  the  hearts  of  the  scholars  to  receive  the 
ingrafted  word  and  guide  the  teacher  into  the  selection  of  the 
right  material,  the  right  treatment,  and  the  right  words  to 
make  God's  work  most  effective. 

The  teacher  herself  will  be  spiritually  uplifted  and  will 
gain  perhaps  more  than  the  scholars  as  the  result  of  these  Periods 
of  Prayer.  "It  is  a.xiomatic,"  says  Professor  Burton,  "that  the 
teacher  who  gains  no  spiritual  help  from  his  study  will  impart 
none  in  his  teachings."  If  his  method  of  study  is  such  that  it 
brings  him  no  uplift  or  strength,  it  can  hardly  have  a  different 
effect  upon  his  pupils.  Dr.  Trumbull  adds:  "The  teacher's 
spirit,  the  teacher's  character,  and  the  teacher's  life  impress  and 
influence  the  pupil  quite  as  much  as  the  teacher's  words." 

2.  The  second  recommendation  is  "Read,  read,  read!" 
There  is  no  way  to  absorb  the  general,  all-round  knowledge  nec- 
essary for  teaching  any  lesson  for  a  half-hour  without  prolonged, 
patient  Heading.  Sunday  School  Teaching  is  no  place  for 
"shirkers.''     It  is  no  place  for  the  lady  of  fashion,  who  desires 


now    TO   rilEPAllE  THE   LESSON  195 

merely  the  '*houor'"  of  being  a  teacher  in  Church,  and  has  "no 
time  to  prepare  the  lesson  until  Sunday  morning/'  Kead  much 
and  read  widely.  Do  not  be  content  with  just  enough  knowl- 
edge to  answer  the  printed  Questions.  Do  not  be  content  either 
with  the  small  condensed  summary,  contained  in  the  Teacher's 
Aid.  Get  other  books  recommended,  either  by  purchase,  or 
from  some  library.  There  are  few  schools  that  will  not  gladly 
make  a  strenuous  eilort  to  supply  books  to  any  teacher  who  is 
really  willing  to  study  and  perfect  knowledge. 

The  difficulty  is  that  the  generality  of  teachers  take  up 
teaching  as  a  "side  play."  Ask  any  rector  to  tell  you  the  truth, 
and  he  will  frankly  say  this  is  so.  Know  more  than  the  bright- 
est of  your  scholars ;  know  just  as  much  as  you  can  possibly  find 
out  on  the  subject.  Thistleton  Mark  rightly  states  that :  "JSTone 
but  the  few  born  teachers  can  safely  leave  their  method  of  treat- 
ing a  lesson  to  take  care  of  itself;  indeed,  it  is  more  likely  than 
not  that  the  best  teachers  will  be  amongst  the  first  to  become, 
either  consciously  or  unconsciously,  students  of  method,  by  ex- 
perimenting, by  comparing  notes  with  other  successful  teachers, 
or  in  some  other  way.  No  amount  of  lectures  or  text-books  on 
method  can  take  the  place  of  the  teacher's  own  effort  and  practi- 
cal ingenuit3^  Yet  reading  and  conversing  on  the  subject  are 
helpful,  for  ideas  and  knowledge  certainly  influence  practice, 
and  right  ideas  are  better  than  either  wrong  ideas  or  no  ideas." 

According  to  See :  "The  teacher's  preparation  in  method 
may  be  of  two  kinds:  (1)  There  are  what  are  called  natural 
teachers.  These  men  have  the  preparation  of  native  endowment. 
A  common  illustration  of  such  endowment  is  found  in  persons 
who  can  play  the  piano  by  ear,  although  they  may  be  unable  to 
read  a  note  of  music.  Paul  speaks  of  those  who  are  'apt  to 
teach,'  and  says  that  Bishops  should  have  that  qualification. 

"(2)  There  is  also  a  preparation  in  acquired  methods  of 
teaching.  It  is  possible  to  apply  the  elementary  principles  of 
pedagogy,  or  the  science  of  teaching,  to  Biblical  instruction  and 
secure  more  efl'ective  teaching  of  the  Bible.  We  have  a  recog- 
nized religious  pedagogy.  One  of  the  objects  of  this  study  is 
to  familiarize  ourselves  with  the  elementary  principles  and  meth- 
ods of  teaching  which  are  observed  in  so-called  secular  instruc- 
tion.    It  should  be  borne  in  mind  as  a  fundamental  proposition 


196  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

that  the  mental  faculties  employed  in  the  reception  of  spiritual 
truth  are  the  same  as  those  employed  in  the  reception  of  any 
other  knowledge.  The  teacher  of  Sunday  has  to  do  with  the 
same  minds  as  the  teacher  of  Monday.  It  is  true  that  there  are 
added  elements  in  the  reception  of  the  spiritual  truth  that  are 
not  at  work  in  the  impartation  of  intellectual  knowledge,  hut  in 
so  far  as  the  mental  powers  are  engaged  in  the  reception  of 
spiritual  truth,  they  are  governed  by  the  same  laws  and  subject 
to  the  same  conditions  as  in  the  reception  of  any  other  form  of 
truth. 

"It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  study  of  the  best  methods 
of  teaching  will  be  either  unnecessary  or  detrimental  to  him  who 
has  native  ability  as  a  teacher.  If  by  reason  of  native  capacity 
a  teacher  has  fallen  into  right  methods  of  teaching,  an  acquired 
knowledge  of  the  principles  which  he  has  been  unconsciously 
practising  could  hardly  make  him  less  effective  as  a  teacher. 
If  he  has  proved  efficient  in  spite  of  his  lack  of  formal  knowledge 
of  the  fundamental  laws  of  teaching,  how  much  more  efficient 
should  he  prove  to  be  with  that  knowledge !  It  is  only  the 
teacher  who  places  too  great  reliance  on  the  mere  knowledge  of 
correct  methods  of  teaching  who  is  injured  thereby." 

The  word  Know  stands  central  in  the  law  of  the  teacher. 
Knoivledge  is  the  material  with  which  the  teacher  works,  and  the 
first  reason  of  the  law  must  be  sought  in  the  nature  of  knowl- 
edge. What  men  call  knowledge  is  of  all  degrees,  from  the  first 
dim  glimpse  of  a  fact  or  truth  to  the  full  and  familiar  under- 
standing of  that  fact,  or  truth,  in  all  its  parts  and  aspects — ^its 
philosophy,  its  beauty,  and  its  power.  (1)  We  may  know  a  fact 
so  faintly  as  merely  to  recognize  it  when  another  tells  it;  (2) 
we  may  know  it  in  such  degree  as  to  be  able  to  recall  it  for 
ourselves,  or  to  describe  it  in  a  general  way  to  another;  (3) 
better  still,  we  may  so  know  it  that  we  can  readily  explain, 
prove,  and  illustrate  it;  or  (4),  mounting  to  the  highest  grade  of 
knowledge,  we  may  so  know  and  vividly  see  a  truth  in  its  deeper 
significance  and  wider  relations  that  its  importance,  grandeur, 
or  beauty  impresses  and  inspires  us.  History  is  history  only  to 
him  who  thus  reads  and  knows  it;  and  Scripture  is  Holy  Writ 
only  when  seen  by  this  inner  light.     It  is  this  last  form  of  knowl- 


HOW   TO   PREPARE   THE   LESSON  197 

edge  which  must  be  read  into  the  law  of  the  true  teacher.  This 
is  the  way  Gregory  puts  it  in  his  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching. 

According  to  Dr.  Butler,  The  Teacher's  Teadting  Plan  is 
not  the  same  as  her  notes  of  preparation.  The  notes  are  mainly 
for  herself,  the  plan  is  for  her  pupils.  Often  the  order  of  the 
teaching  plan  is  the  reverse  order  of  the  teacher's  notes.  Why  ? 
Because  the  notes  usually  begin  at  the  adult  end,  and  the  plan 
must  begin  at  the  "small-boy  end."  His  end,  therefore,  must 
be  our  introduction,  and  his  point  of  view  must  decide  our 
method  of  telling  the  story.  Indicate,  near  the  middle  of  the 
story,  where  you  will  rest  them  by  instructive  activity;  e.g.,  after 
the  garden  has  been  planted  they  can  stand,  as  trees,  with  out- 
stretched branches  (arms)  protecting  the  animals  who  seek  their 
shade;  then  with  upright  branches,  swaying  in  the  wind;  and 
then,  as  children,  they  can  pick  up  the  fallen  fruit  to  refresh 
them  during  the  last  half  of  the  story.  Put  at  the  top  of  the 
card — the  Moral  must,  by  suggestion,  be  woven  into  the  story, 
not  tagged  on  at  its  end.  The  purpose  of  all  instruction  is 
action;  therefore,  ask  them  to  re-tell  the  story  at  home,  and 
remind  them  that  you  will  ask  them  to  tell  you  the  story  on  the 
following  Sunday. 

"For  example,  a  map  of  Palestine,  four  inches  by  eight, 
would  be  likely  to  give  him  the  idea  that  the  country  was  just 
the  size  of  the  map.  The  picture  of  a  camel,  or  of  any  other 
object  which  he  has  not  seen,  would  be  more  liable  to  convey 
wrong  ideas  than  right  ones.  Yet  in  his  relation  to  the  human 
life  and  activity  of  which  he  is  a  part,  he  knows  instinctively 
much  that  he  does  not  understand,  and  feels  even  more  than  he 
knows.  His  mental  powers  have  developed,  his  activity  is  more 
intentional,  and  he  is  more  influenced  by  others.  His  spon- 
taneous imitation  includes  everything,  deeds  and  words,  dress 
and  manners. 

"Our  Method  should  be  informative,  and,  still  more  largely, 
suggestive.  A  healthy  boy  does  not  want  his  teacher  to  climb 
the  tree  and  hand  him  the  apples ;  the  boy  delights  to  climb  and 
get  the  fruit  for  himself.  Even  if  he  be  too  small  to  climb,  he 
only  asks  his  teacher  to  pull  down  the  limb;  picking  the  fruit 
he  enjoys  as  much  as  eating.  That  is  why  one  truth,  suggested 
by  his  teacher,  and  mentally  picked  by  the  boy  himself,  is  worth 


198  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

more  to  him  than  ten  truths  gathered  and  delivered  to  him. 
The  child  has  now  come  to  an  age  when  the  teacher  should  teach 
with  authority;  not  his  own  authority,  but  that  of  God's  Son 
and  God's  Church. 

"The  Purpose  of  Instruction  in  this  Grade  is  so  to  educate 
the  conscience  and  the  whole  moral  nature  that  the  child,  being 
impressed  with  a  deep  sense  of  God's  authority  and  love,  shall 
become  obedient  to  God,  helpful  to  others,  and  so,  in  right  doing, 
find  his  own  happiness. 

"The  teacher's  plan  should  be  like  a  good  rubber  band — 
small  in  size  but  excellent  in  quality;  very  elastic,  and  so  able 
to  meet  every  reasonable  demand.  It  should  bring  to  the  class 
all  the  information  which  the  pupils  need  and  cannot  or  do  not 
bring.  It  should  be  able  to  omit  everything  that  the  children 
can  find  out  for  themselves,  or  that  can  be  brought  to  their 
recollection  or  their  understanding  by  wise  questioning.  In  the 
recitation,  take  up  first  the  children's  contributions  to  the  les- 
son material,  and  select  from  it  some  incident,  fact,  or  truth 
which  best  connects  the  far-off  life  of  the  hero  with  the  life  of 
to-day.  Make  this  connecting  link  your  point  of  contact  by 
which  the  lesson  story  and  the  class  are  to  be  connected  by  a  com- 
mon interest.  Have  one,  and  only  one,  main  truth  in  the  lesson, 
using  all  other  truths  to  strengthen  or  illuminate  it.  This  gives 
unity  to  the  lesson  and  definitiveness  of  impression  to  the  chil- 
dren. Within  this  unity  make  each,  division  distinct.  Is  your 
subject  the  Life  of  David?  Your  divisions  may  be  (i)  The 
Shepherd  Boy;  (ii)  The  Shepherd  Warrior;  (iii)  The  Shep- 
herd King.  But  it  would  be  better  to  devote  a  whole  lesson  to 
each  division  provided  you  have  secured  the  interest  of  your 
class." 

Visiting  the  Public  School.  "The  teacher's  preparation 
should  include  a  visit  to  the  grammar  grades  of  the  public  school, 
and  may  well  begin  there.  The  teacher  needs  to  know  just  what 
her  pupils  are  being  taught  in  material  things,  in  order  that  in 
her  own  teaching  she  may  use  the  same  earthly  things  to  illus- 
trate God's  care  and  goodness.  Incidentally,  her  visit  will  please 
her  pupils,  and  may  also  prove  helpful  in  improving  her  own 
pedagogical  methods,"  says  Butler. 

3.    Keep  at  least  one  entire  Lesson  ahead  of  your  pupils. 


now   TO   PREPARE   THE    LESSON  190 

both  in  order  that  you  may  bo  able  to  suggest  to  them,  in  assign- 
ing work  for  the  next  Lesson,  that  they  may  avoid  the  diflicul- 
ties  you  have  discovered;  and  also  that  when  you  come  to  teach 
it,  it  may  be  a  second  review  to  you,  thoroughly  familiar  in  all 
its  phases  and  sides,  from  your  own  first  review  that  week. 
Thus  you  will  study  two  lessons  a  week :  one  in  advance  and  one 
reviewed  for  the  teacliing  that  ensuing  Sunday. 

Imagine  a  day  school  teacher  who  when  the  gong  sounded 
knew  nothing  of  the  succeeding  lesson  and  announced  it  merely 
at  random!  In  a  well-ordered  Sunday  School,  as  we  shall  see 
more  fully  when  we  come  to  the  Lesson  Hour,  if  the  entire  ses- 
sion is  to  be  one  hour  in  length,  the  opening  service  ought  not 
to  take  more  than  live  minutes.  The  lesson  period  should  have 
forty  minutes  assigned  to  it,  which  leaves  fifteen  minutes  to  the 
routine  work  of  the  school,  i.e.,  marking  the  class,  taking  up  the 
collection,  giving  out  the  library  books,  announcements,  and  clos- 
ing service.  The  forty  minutes  of  the  lesson  hour  should  never 
be  interrupted.  It  is  not  the  time  for  the  Superintendent  or 
the  Secretary  to  go  from  class  to  class  and  chat  with  the  young 
ladies.  It  is  the  period  sacred  to  the  teachers  and  the  pupils. 
Ten  minutes  before  that  period  is  ended,  some  signal  should  be 
given  from  the  desk,  which  means  that  there  remain  ten  min- 
utes, five  of  which  can  be  devoted  to  finishing  the  present  lesson, 
gathering  up  loose  ends,  etc.,  and  five  minutes  to  talk  over  and 
explain  the  succeeding  lesson.  The  teacher  ought  to  be  able 
to  say  when  that  point  is  reached:  "Xow,  scholars,  open  your 
text  books  and  we  will  talk  over  next  Sunday's  lesson.  The 
questions  are  numbered  from  one  to  fifteen,  say,  and  are  seem- 
ingly homogeneous.  Of  course  you  know  that  they  are  not. 
Take  your  lead  pencils  and  mark  in  your  lesson  books  Roman 
numerals  to  indicate  the  backbone  or  leading  questions  of  the  les- 
son. Questions  1,  5,  9,  and  13  are  the  leading  or  backbone  ques- 
tions corresponding  Bible  paragraphs.  Now  question  No.  7  is 
rather  ambiguous,  and  rather  than  have  you  get  a  wrong  answer, 
you  had  better  leave  that  question  for  discussion  in  class,  when  I 
will  help  you  to  arrive  at  the  right  conclusion.  Question  11  is 
a  geographical  research  question.  John,  you  may  be  responsible 
for  that  question,  particularly  as  you  are  so  good  at  map  draw- 
ing.   Question  No.  4  is  a  study  research  question.    Now,  Henry, 


200  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

I  believe  you  have  a  good  commentary  at  home,  and  I  will  make 
you  especially  responsible  for  that  question."  And  so  the  lesson 
is  planned  in  order  that  the  scholars  may  each  have  a  share,  and 
that  the  sensory  and  motor  types  of  pupils  will  have  some  work 
in  particular  to  suit  them.  This  cannot  be  done  without  pre- 
vious study  of  the  lesson. 

One  should  make  it  a  general  rule  that  on  Monday,  or  not 
later  than  Tuesday,  one  will  study  the  advance  lesson.  On 
Thursday,  and  not  later  than  Friday,  one  will  review  the  lesson 
to  be  taught  on  the  next  Sunday ;  which,  of  course,  has  been  first 
studied  on  the  Monday  or  Tuesday  of  the  preceding  week.  Thus, 
all  through  the  week,  the  lessons  will  be  in  mind  and  material 
along  the  line  of  illustration  will  be  constantly  acquired,  as  the 
teacher  lives  through  the  week  days  intervening. 

4.  Have  a  Teachers'  Reference  Bible,  if  possible — such  as 
the  cheap  $3.75  book  (Xat.  Bible  Co.)  known  as  the  "Combina- 
tion Bible,"  which  has  both  Authorized  and  Revised  Versions, 
with  all  the  usual  Aids,  Concordance,  and  Maps.  At  least  have 
a  small  Bible  of  your  own,  and  mark  it  in  ink,  as  need  requires, 
for  subsequent  use.  (Mrs.  Menzie's  Marking  System  is  not  a 
bad  one  to  use.) 

5.  The  Text-Booh,  as  you  see,  is  the  crux  of  the  teaching. 
Eead  over  carefully  what  is  said  in  the  Chapter  on  Lesson  Series, 
particularly  the  part  on  The  Modern  Source  Method.  With 
Question-and-Answer  Books  you  can  do  little  but  parrot-work. 
You  are  a  machine.  Your  individuality  is  taken  away.  Most 
of  the  suggestions  following  will  be  useless  with  such  a  book. 
With  any  other  System  supplying  Questions  for  which  Answers 
are  to  be  sought  from  the  Bible  (or  even  printed  sections  of  it), 
or  from  the  Prayer  Book,  you  have  some  measure  of  freedom, 
provided  you  are  permitted  to  have  some  of  "the  Liberty"  in 
teaching  it  referred  to  as  one  of  the  qualifications  of  a  teacher 
in  Chapter  II. 

The  best  Text  Book,  however,  is  one  built  on  the  Heuristic 
{i.e..  Finding)  or  Source  Method,  and  it  becomes  then  barely 
more  than  a  guide  for  research,  a  suggestive  Handbook  Outline 
for  study.  The  development  of  the  Lesson  in  Class  then  lies 
more  in  your  own  hands. 

Text  Books  to-day  on  this  method  have  the  following  char- 


now   TO   i'REl'AllE   Till':    LESSON  201 

aclen'siics:  (a)  Broad,  suggestive  Review  Questions,  for  Rapid 
Oral  Answers,  covering  a  wide  outlook,  and  making  pedagogical 
connection  of  the  new  lesson  with  those  of  the  series  thus  far. 

(b)  Questions  for  Home  Study  with  Prepared  Answers,  usually 
written,  in  order,  first,  to  fix  the  knowledge  more  firmly  by  the 
pedagogical  act  of  driving  it  home  by  writing  it  down;  second, 
to  ascertain  that  sufficient  homo   study  has  been   accorded  it. 

(c)  Questions  for  Class  Discussion,  based  on  the  general  Home 
Study,  new,  live,  interesting,  provoking  active  expression,  in 
place  of  the  usual  dead,  dry,  monotonous  recitation,  (d)  Ques- 
tions to  be  assigned  for  Particular  Research,  such  as  certain  ob- 
scure Geographical,  Historical,  Archaeological,  or  Critical 
points,  (e)  Provision  in  the  amplest  form  for  the  use  of  Maps, 
Pictures,  Hlustrative  Objects;  for  the  development  of  Practical 
Handwork,  the  making  of  Maps,  Objects,  drawing  of  routes, 
insertion  of  cities  on  outline  maps,  etc.  Such  Lessons  demand 
work,  hard  work.  They  are  difficult  to  teach,  and  are  apt  to  be 
most  unsatisfactory  under  incompetent,  lazy,  or  indifferent 
teachers;  but  they  are  the  best;  the  ideal,  to  be  sure;  but  just  in 
accord  with  the  present  Day  School  System,  and  at  once  recog- 
nized as  such,  and  appreciated  and  respected  accordingly  by  all 
bright,  earnest  scholars. 

Bishop  Paret  says :  "But  at  best,  any  such  scries  of  books 
or  questions  cannot  supply  all  the  teaching.  They  can  be  but  a 
help  to  it,  a  frame-work  or  skeleton  on  which  to  build  it.  In 
our  universities  or  seminaries  he  would  be  counted  an  utterly 
weak  and  unworthy  professor  who  limited  his  classroom  duty  to 
making  it  sure  that  the  students  committed  to  memory  and  re- 
cited accurately  a  set  task  of  words.  He  must  be  far  in  advance 
of  students;  far  in  advance  of  the  letter  of  the  best  text  books. 
He  must  himself  have  taken  in  and  mastered  the  principles, 
the  beauties,  the  inner  real  life  and  soul  of  the  science  he  is  to 
teach.  He  must  have  light  of  his  own  which  he  can  throw  upon 
and  into  the  text  books.  So,  putting  the  best  text  books  in  the 
teacher's  hands  will  not  make  a  good  Sunday  School  teacher." 

Text  books  should  not  be  changed,  but  the  system  that  is 
adopted  should  be  tested  for  at  least  five  years.  As  Dr.  Butler 
quaintly  puts  it :  "How  can  a  school  be  anything  but  a  blunder 
and  a  byword  when  its  head  is  not  ashamed  to  say :    'Oh,  we 


202  RETJGIOUS  EDUCATION 

change  our  text  books  every  year;  one  year  on  any  system  is 
about  as  much  as  teachers  or  chiklren  can  stand.  What  books 
are  you  using^?'  as  though  it  were  hooks  and  not  the  persons  be- 
hind them  that  dcH-ided  whether  a  School  sliould  be  a  blunder  or 
a  blessing!  ImagiiK!  a  young  carpenter  looking  at  an  older 
man's  work  and  saying,  "That  is  excellent;  I  should  like  to  turn 
out  a  job  like  that.  Say,  what  tools  do  you  use?'  And  where 
will  you  find  a  college,  a  high  school,  or  a  primary  school  that 
says,  ^Oh,  we  change  our  books  every  year'?  Yet  if  it  be  the 
right  thing  to  do  in  a  school  intended  to  fit  children  for  an 
endless  life,  why  is  it  not  the  right  thing  to  do  in  schools  that  are 
fitting  children  for  the  brief  life  of  earth?" 

Dr.  Hervey's  Directions  for  Study. 

The  following  suggestions  have  been  gathered  from  the 
experience  and  practice  of  those  who  know  how  to  study  and  are 
designed  to  help  tliose  who  do  not  know  how  to  study.  They 
are  directions  such  as  might  be  given  by  a  teacher  to  his  class. 
They  can  be  followed  with  adaptations  in  the  study  of  any  book. 
If  they  are  followed  intelligently,  two  things  are  likely  to  hap- 
pen: First,  the  student  will  be  able  to  improve  upon  these  direc- 
tions; Second,  the  student  will  become  able  to  study  without 
consciously  following  directions. 

1.  Read  the  whole  lesson  (or  chapter)  through  once  for 
the  purpose  of  getting  a  general  idea  of  what  it  means.  When 
you  have  finished  this  reading,  close  the  book  and  write  a  brief 
statement  in  answer  to  the  question,  "What  is  the  point  of  this 
passage  ?" 

2.  Read  the  chapter,  sentence  by  sentence,  paragraph  by 
])aragTaph,  trying  to  grasp  the  meaning  clearly,  precisely,  per- 
sonally. 

Some  of  the  words  contain  "buried  metaphors,"  pictures; 
see  that  you  see  these  pictures,  and  are  prepared  to  make  others 
see  them. 

Some  of  the  sentences  are  expressed  in  abstract  language, 
conveying  a  general  truth;  find  concrete  illustrations  of  every 
one  of  these.  Where  the  author  uses  an  illustration,  find  other 
illustrations  of  your  own. 

Where  the  author  uses  one  form  of  statements,  use  another 


HOW   TO    PREPARE   THE   LESSON  203 

of  your  own.  Sec  in  how  many  w.ays  you  can  say  the  same  thing. 
(There  are  many  ways  of  putting  thing.<,  as  there  are  many  flies 
on  the  fisherman's  hook.) 

Tliis  is  the  step  of  clearness,  of  detail,  of  picturing,  of  am- 
plification, and  enrichment  of  materials.  Its  purpose  is  to  make 
the  truth  clear,  (Icfinilo,  concrete,  and  so  warm,  living,  and  ready 
for  action. 

3.  Head  the  chapter,  paragraph  by  paragraph,  asking  your- 
self, What  question  is  answered  by  this  paragraph?  What  short 
statement  will  precisely  express  the  point  of  this  paragraph  (and 
so  be  the  answer  to  lli(>  question  just  framed)  ?  How  is  this 
paragraph  related  to  the  whole?  Does  it  suggest  a  paragraph 
or  sentence  in  another  connection?  How  does  it  follow  from 
what  precedes?  How  lead  to  what  follows?  In  a  word,  if  it  is  a 
link,  what  the  coordinate  links? 

Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter  or  the  book,  with  heads  and 
sub-heads.  And,  with  all  this  thinking,  be  alert  for  personal 
meanings,  for  applications. 

To  sum  up :  First,  a  rough  general  view,  such  as  a  civil 
engineer  might  gain  by  riding  over  the  country  he  is  to  survey. 
Second,  clearness  as  to  facts;  warmth  in  detail;  putting  your- 
self into  the  thing,  whether  it  be  a  thing  done,  a  thing  seen,  or 
a  thing  felt.  Third,  compacting  parts  into  wholes,  seeing  ends 
from  beginnings,  organizing  for  action.  And  at  each  step,  the 
thought  of  personal  assimilation,  and  of  use:  What  does  this 
mean  to  me?  Is  it  true?  Do  I  disagree  with  it,  and  why? 
How  can  I  use,  apply,  follow,  live  it  ?  How  make  it  live  in  the 
mind  and  lives  of  my  pupils? 

7.  Having  your  own  hnoivledge  of  the  Lesson  Passage, 
search  for  Additional  Material.  If  you  have  other  books,  read 
them.  At  any  rate,  be  certain  to  secure  somewhere  more  in- 
formation about  your  subject  tlian  your  class  has.  A  faithful 
teacher  should  have  on  hand  during  the  week  some  volume  from 
a  library  bearing  on  the  general  line  of  study  (not  on  each  lesson, 
by  any  means)  and  read  it,  in  place  of,  or  parallel  with,  the 
usual  novel  and  newspaper,  without  which  no  one  exists  these 
days.  Few  indeed,  if  any,  are  the  cases  where  some  moments 
may  not  be  found  for,  say,  fifteen  minutes  a  day.  A  Sunday 
School  Teacher  should  be  always  trying  to  learn,  and  learning 


204  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

should  be  pleasant,  not  an  irksome,  disagreeable  duty,  to  be 
shirked  until  the  time  comes  for  studying  the  lesson.  If  it  be 
unpleasant  and  distasteful,  then  something  is  radically  wrong 
with  the  spiritual  side  of  the  teacher ;  and  Eule  1  of  this  Chap- 
ter had  better  be  re-read  on  the  knees. 

8.  Study  the  Lesson  Questions  from  the  Text  Booh,  and 
write  out  yourself  the  fullest  answers  to  them;  wi'ite  because  it 
drives  the  knowledge  home  for  yourself,  just  as  writing  does  for 
the  pupils:  fullest,  because  you  want  to  be  overstocked,  not 
understocked,  nor  with  just  enough  to  fill  in  the  time. 

The  Herbartian  or  Formal  Steps. 

The  teaching  scheme  which  follows  we  owe  in  its  complete- 
ness to  the  disciples  of  the  German  philosopher  and  educationist, 
Herbart,  of  whom,  as  compared  witli  another  famous  inventor 
of  methods,  it  has  been  well  said:  Herbart  magnified  the  work 
of  the  teacher;  Froebel  magnified  the  work  of  the  child.  It  is 
just  because  Herbart  thought  so  much  about  the  teacher's  part 
in  education  that  his  ideas  have  spread  so  rapidly.  His  hints 
come  readily  to  hand,  and  are  capable  of  immediate  application. 
They  aid  the  teacher  in  his  part  of  the  task,  and  tend  to  make 
the  preparation  and  arrangement  of  the  subject-matter  of  a  les- 
son far  easier.  It  is  not  a  revolutionary  method,  but  rather  one 
into  which  we  can  very  often  fit  our  own  best  thoughts,  and  find 
them  the  better  and  the  more  forceful  for  their  new  setting. 
This  teaching  scheme  consists  of  five  divisions  or  stages,  which 
may  be  adapted,  according  to  subject  and  circumstances,  either 
to  a  single  lesson  or  to  a  series — one,  or  perhaps  two,  of  the  di- 
visions forming  a  single  lesson  of  the  series.     These  steps  are: 

(a)  Prepakatiox.  Just  as  the  farmer  plows  his  ground 
and  prepares  it  to  sow,  you  should  prepare  your  class  for  the  new 
lesson.  Write  out  Questions,  making  up  new  ones,  different 
from  those  in  your  text  book.  Be  prepared  to  call  up  the  related 
knowledge  that  is  lying  dormant  in  the  minds  of  your  children. 
This  step  corresponds  to  the  Preliminary  Eeview  Questions  at 
the  beginning  of  each  lesson.  No  matter  how  hurried  the  time 
may  be,  these  must  never  be  omitted,  because  they  form  the  con- 
necting link  which  joins  the  unknown  to  the  known.  Imagine 
the  farmer  saying:   "Oh,  Spring  is  so  late  and  I  have  so  much 


now   To    I'UEl'AKK   THE   LESSON  205 

to  do,  and  so  many  fields  to  plant,  and  my  time  is  so  short,  1  will 
omit  the  plowing  and  will  just  sow  the  seed" !  The  plowing  is 
essential  to  the  growth  of  the  seed,  and  can  never  be  omitted, 
and  yet  some  teachers  think  the  review  unessential.  The  Re- 
view Questions  should  be  broad  and  striking,  welding  together  all 
the  previous  analogous  material ;  not  minute  in  detail.  For 
example,  suppose  the  class  has  had  four  lessons  on  the  Life  of 
David,  up  to  his  meeting  with  Goliath.  A  poor  Eeview  Ques- 
tion would  be,  "In  what  city  was  David  bom?"  A  good  Review 
Question  would  be,  "Will  someone,  whom  I  shall  name,  tell  me 
in  four  sentences  the  four  chief  events  of  David's  life  up  to  our 
present  lesson?"  The  scholars  begin  to  think.  "Four  chief 
events;  does  she  mean  four  in  one  lesson;  or  one  in  each  of  the 
four ;  or  two  in  one  and  one  of  each  of  the  two  other  ?  What  are 
the  four  chief  events?"  Every  scholar  is  mentally  reviewing 
and  welding  together  all  the  preceding  lessons. 

Of  course,  with  younger  scholars  this  method  of  historic 
perspective  would  not  be  used,  but  the  Review  Questions  would, 
nevertheless,  be  of  a  broad,  welding  nature. 

(6)  Presentation.  Just  as  Preparation  theoretically  cor- 
responds to  the  Review  Questions  in  a  properly  prepared 
Heuristic  Book,  so  Presentation  corresponds  to  the  Questions 
for  Home  Study,  only  you  want  to  prepare  your  own  set,  for 
your  own  benefit,  if  you  can.  At  any  rate,  you  intend  to  in- 
struct, and  not  simply  hear  recitations,  so  you  will  present  new 
material.  In  other  words,  you  will  sow  the  seed  in  the  ground 
prepared.  And  considering  all  the  points  referred  to  under  the 
section  on  Method,  you  will  thus  study  to  present  your  material, 
gathering  Illustrations,  working  up  Live  Questions,  providing 
for  Attention,  Interest,  and  Memory-training;  and  so  doing  your 
work  in  Class,  with  but  slight  reference  to  book,  certainly  with- 
out being  wearisomely  tied  to  it. 

This  step  corresponds  to  sowing  the  seed  after  the  ground 
has  been  prepared.  It  is  at  this  stage  that  the  habit  of  volun- 
tary attention  has  to  be  created.  According  to  Mark:  The 
new  points  should,  therefore,  be  as  striking  and  full  of  interest 
as  possible.  Unless  we  ourselves  are  keenly  interested  in  them 
and  in  the  way  we  intend  to  present  them,  we  cannot  expect  the 
class  to  be  interested.     But  if  we  are  sure  of  the  value  of  what 


206  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

we  have  to  say,  we  may  be  equally  sure  that  the  children  want  to 
hear  it,  provided  that  it  is  suitably  chosen  and  that  the  prepara- 
tory step  has  been  successfully  accomplished.  "All  knowledge," 
Lord  Bacon  has  said  (and  wonder,  which  is  the  seed  of  knowl- 
edge), "is  an  impression  of  pleasure  in  itself." 

"This  second  step,"  says  Mark,  "of  which  we  are  speaking, 
does  not  necessarily  consist  of  telling  something  to  the  class.  It 
may  be  a  question  that  is  put,  suggesting  something  new,  some- 
thing which  was  not  included  in  the  previous  knowledge  of  the 
class,  and  yet  leading  naturally  from  it.  For  example,  having 
discovered  what  the  children  know  about  brick-making,  one 
might  introduce  the  new  elements  in  the  lesson  by  asking  what 
straw  could  have  to  do  with  making  bricks,  and  then  telling  the 
story  in  brief  outline,  or  getting  one  class  to  read  it,  so  that  they 
may  see  the  point  of  the  question.  Or,  having  listened  to  all  the 
useful  things  the  children  can  tell  about  gardens,  one  might  say : 
"^Our  lesson  is  to  be  about  someone  who  was  seen  sowing  some 
seed.  What  kind  of  ground  would  he  choose  for  sowing,  do  you 
think?'  However  individual  teachers  may  prefer  to  handle  it, 
this  second  step  in  teaching  consists  of  bringing  in  fresh  thought 
or  knowledge  to  lay  by  the  side  of  that  which  the  children  already 
possessed;  it  brings  into  play  the  mind's  constructive  instincts 
already  spoken  of." 

(c)  Association  or  Elaboration.  It  is  not  what  we 
eat,  but  what  we  digest,  that  is  of  use.  It  is  not  what  3'ou 
recite  glibly  to  the  child,  rattling  it  off  perchance  from  scribbled 
notes;  but  what  he  appropriates  that  is  to  "build  up  a  character, 
efficient  for  the  best."  Apperception,  we  say,  is  to  assimilate  the 
new  material.  Simply  put,  this  means  you  are  to  be  sure  the 
children  understand,  take  in,  appreciate  what  you  teach  them. 
Build  up  your  illustrations  around  your  teaching.  The  whole 
benefit  of  all  subsequent  teaching  may  be  lost  if  you  carelessly 
miss  making  the  connecting  link  clear  and  lucid. 

Mark  says:  "We  are  now  getting  to  the  very  heart  of  the 
lesson,  and  comparison  or  illustration  may  suitably  follow — 
perhaps  several  illustrations,  jointly  contributed  by  teacher  and 
scholars.  It  is  better  that  the  new  knowledge  should  not  be  left 
to  stand  alone.  Companion  ideas  are  needed  in  order  that  the 
new  idea  may  be  really  at  home  in  the  mind.     Or,  if  it  be  a 


now  TO  PKb:i'Aiii;  the  lesson  207 

problem  which  is  being  worked  out,  examples  and  instances 
suitable  to  the  purpose  ma_y  Jiow  be  brought  forward.  If  we  give 
the  children  time  to  think,  or  help  them  by  hints  or  questions, 
they  will  sometimes  be  quite  able  to  discover  some  of  the  com- 
panion ideas  or  helpful  cvaiiiijlcs  U)v  tlicmselves — in  other  words, 
to  illustrate  tiie  new  fact  out  of  their  own  experience.  To  keep 
to  the  example  already  used,  the  making  of  bricks  without  straw 
might  be  illustrated  by  a  reference  to  poor  children  who  have  to 
go  to  school  without  sufficient  food,  or  to  learn  their  lessons  with- 
oui  l)L'iiig  able  to  buy  proper  books;  or  to  parents  who  have  to 
work  to  get  food  and  clothing  and  a  home  for  their  children. 
There  are  many  ways,  the  children  will  begin  to  see,  of  having 
to  make  bricks  without  straw,  and  they  will,  with  the  quick, 
associative  instincts  of  young  minds,  readily  suggest  further 
examples." 

(d)  The  fourth  step  is  variously  termed  Generalization", 
Classification,  Eecapitulation,  KEPRonucTiON,  Keview.  It 
is  really  getting  at  the  principle,  so  that  the  knowledge  can  be 
re-stated  by  the  pupils  in  a  new  form,  in  a  wide,  general  manner, 
as  part  of  the  whole  field  of  knowledge.  Many  of  the  Thought 
Questions  contained  in  Questions  for  Discussion  in  Class  are 
intended  to  embody  this  idea. 

One  of  the  best  ways  of  accomplishing  this  would  be  by 
stopping  every  five  minutes  or  so  and  getting  a  scholar  to  tell  the 
class  what  has  been  covered  during  the  preceding  interval.  Or 
this  may  be  accomplished  in  another  way — having  talked  about 
a  journey,  we  can  review  it  by  drawing  it  on  the  map ;  or  when 
we  have  discussed  an  object,  by  explaining  a  model  of  it  or  de- 
scribing a  picture  that  may  be  produced.  One  can  teach  the  story 
of  the  Nativity,  and  review  it  by  a  series  of  pictures  by  which 
the  salient  points  surrounding  the  Nativity  are  re-elucidated. 

(e)  The  last  step  is  Practical  Application;  in  religious 
fields  expressed  by  the  words,  "The  Moral."  Sometimes  this  is 
to  be  stated;  sometimes  hinted  at;  sometimes  left  for  the  scholars 
to  see  it  plainly  written  all  over  the  topic.  If  Habit  and  Char- 
acter is  our  aim,  then  there,  too,  comes  in  the  Inquiry,  "How  have 
the  Teachings  of  the  various  Lessons  been  functioned  or  applied 
practically  in  the  outside,  daily  lives  of  your  children?"  This 
is  the  real  test  of  all  good  work,  and  it  is  probably  not  too  strong 


208  KELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

a  point  to  insist  on,  that  the  teacher  who  is  not  influencing  the 
lives  of  the  scholars  in  some  way  for  good  is  failing  in  the  best 
ideals  of  character-building. 

Other  Points  of  Importance  in  Lesson  Preparation. 

The  Lesson  Title.  Dr.  Marianna  C.  Brown  says  that  the 
lesson  title  very  often  may  seem  unimportant.  If  unim- 
portant, then  uninteresting.  But  while  we  dismiss  the  matter 
of  the  lesson  title  as  uninteresting,  we  forget  that  the  child 
Judges  of  the  interest  of  what  is  to  follow  by  this  same  neglected 
title.  Tell  a  child  that  you  are  going  to  talk  about  "Samuel," 
and  if  the  child  does  not  happen  to  already  know  of  Samuel, 
you  might  as  well  have  said  Methuselah,  or  any  other  name. 
Tell  the  same  child  that  you  are  going  to  talk  about  "A  little  Boy 
to  whom  God  spoke,"  and  you  have  aroused  both  his  sympathy 
and  his  curiosity. 

If  the  class  is  old  enough  to  follow  a  thought  and  take  part 
in  the  development  of  the  lesson,  in  other  words,  if  the  teacher 
does  not  merely  tell  a  story,  but  proceeds  by  the  question  method, 
the  lesson  title  has  a  second  work  to  perform.  It  should  express 
the  general  aim  of  the  talk.  By  so  doing  it  strengthens  the 
unity  of  the  lesson.  For  instance,  in  the  Samuel  lesson,  the 
title  "A  Little  Boy  to  Whom  God  Spoke,"  may  be  interesting. 
It  may  do  for  the  infant  class  to  whom  the  story  is  told,  or  it 
may  do  as  the  title  of  the  Bible  account  that  a  child  is  to  read  at 
home.  If  there  is  to  be  class  discussion,  the  teacher  should  give 
a  second  title,  in  some  such  form  as  "Let  us  see  to-day,  'How  God 
spoke  to  a  little  boy  long  ago.' "  From  this  title  can  be  drawn 
interesting  thoughts  as  to  how  God  speaks  to  us.  In  all  the 
talk,  whether  introduction,  story,  or  conclusion,  the  child  knows, 
or  can  be  easily  shown,  when  he  wanders  from  the  topic  in  hand. 

Some  teachers  may  prefer  to  call  this  "stating  the  aim." 
In  the  teacher's  mind  it  can  be  called  lesson  aim  or  lesson  sub- 
ject. But  when  we  face  the  child  who  has  wandered  from  the 
point,  it  seems  easier  to  ask,  "What  are  we  talking  about  ?"  than 
to  ask,  '^hat  is  the  aim  of  our  talk  ?"  Moreover,  our  real  aim 
is  to  teach  some  spiritual  truth,  and  this  we  do  not  wish  to  ex- 
press to  the  children  at  first. 

Having  worded  our  lesson  title  so  as  to  both  arouse  interest 


IIUW    i'O   I'RKi'AKl':   THE    LESSON  20!) 

and  express  the  general  aim  of  the  talk,  we  have  still  a  third  use 
to  make  of  it.  Every  teacher  of  children  has  had  scholars  who 
remember  well  the  action  or  interesting  part  of  stories  but  who 
constantly  forget  or  confuse  the  names  of  the  people  about  whom 
the  stories  are  told.  Some  entire  classes,  if  asked  what  stories 
they  knew  about  Abraham,  or  Isaac,  or  Jacob,  would  either  be 
silent  or  make  apparently  wild  guesses.  Yet  if  started  on  any  of 
the  familiar  stories  about  these  peeople,  they  would  brighten  up 
at  once.  Now  the  lesson  title  can  be  made  to  do  much  towards 
connecting  the  incident  with  the  name.  Accordingly,  in  place 
of  saying,  "Let  us  see  to-day  'How  God  spoke  to  a  little  boy  long 
ago,' ''  we  sa}'^,  "Let  us  see  'How  God  spoke  long  ago  to  a  little 
boy  named  Samuel' " ;  or,  perhaps,  "How  God  spoke  to  the  boy 
Samuel.''  The  title  can  be  expressed  in  a  variety  of  ways,  ac- 
cording to  the  age  and  character  of  the  class.  Other  things 
being  equal,  a  short  title  is  preferable. 

This  principle  of  making  the  lesson  title  unite  the  lesson 
fact  and  its  proper  name,  is  based  upon  two  psychological  facts. 
The  first  is  that  an  entire  sentence,  if  not  too  long  or  complex, 
can  be  remembered  by  most  people  about  as  easily  as  a  single 
word.  If  the  sentence  contains  or  suggests  an  interesting  idea 
it  can  usually  be  remembered  more  easily  than  a  new,  isolated 
proper  name.  The  second  is  that  when  a  thought  and  a  name 
are  habitually  associated,  as  in  a  lesson  title,  the  suggestion  of 
either  one  will  call  to  mind  the  other. 

The  Question  Method  in  Introduction.  Dr.  Brown 
says :  "The  introduction  ought  almost  always  to  be  according  to 
the  question  method.  Without  some  response  from  the  child  we 
cannot  tell  when  we  have  come  in  contact  with  his  life  or  when 
we  have  aroused  his  interest.  Each  Sunday  he  comes  to  Sunday 
School  in  a  different  mood.  Some  days  a  single  reference  to  a 
subject  would  arouse  his  entire  being.  Other  days  that  subject 
is  far  from  his  thoughts.  We  want  his  answers  in  order  to  know 
when  our  introduction  has  accomplished  its  work. 

"Moreover,  the  very  self-activity  required  in  trying  to  answer 
helps  the  child  to  put  himself  into  the  desired  mood.  If  he  is 
merely  to  listen  to  the  teacher,  the  teacher  has,  in  a  double  sense 
the  entire  work  to  do.  The  teacher's  efforts  must  bring  the 
scholar  to  the  desired  line  of  thought.    If  the  child  is  to  answer 


210  lIKI.KilOHS  EDITCATION 

questions,  he  makes  himself  come  to  the  desired  line  of  thought 
for  the  sake  of  the  pleasure  of  taking  part  in  the  conversation. 

"The  question  of  presenting  new  material  is  different. 
Children  love  a  story.  Children  under  ten  or  eleven  do  not  feel 
that  a  narrative  developed  by  the  question  method  is  a  story, 
even  if  the  teacher  tells  considerable  and  is  never  so  graphic. 
Therefore,  for  the  sake  of  making  the  children  enjoy  the  new 
material  the  story  method  is  desirable  with  the  younger  classes. 

"By  the  time  the  children  can  read,  or  at  least  when  they  are 
advanced  enough  to  be  out  of  the  Primary  Day  School,  the  work 
will  be  more  dignified  and  improving  if  the  question  method  be 
used  even  for  the  new  material.  The  children  should  read  the 
lesson  at  home  and  be  able  to  contribute  to  the  building  up  of 
the  story  in  class.  This  usually  begins  at  about  nine  years  of 
age.  As  the  children  still  love  and  perhaps  even  prefer  the  old 
story  method,  it  is  well  for  a  year  or  two  to  mix  the  methods, 
usually  building  up  the  story  but  some  days  telling  it. 

"In  large  classes  especially,  it  seems  easier  for  the  teacher  to 
talk  than  to  see  that  each  scholar  contributes  something.  That 
older  scholars  retain  less  when  they  take  no  active  and  personal 
part  in  the  lesson  is  easily  overlooked.  But  after  eleven  or  twelve 
years  of  age  the  children  only  become  stupid  or  restless  if  the 
teacher  does  too  much  of  the  talking.  The  real  teacher  faces  the 
facts  and  rises  to  the  question  method. 

"On  the  other  hand,  the  question  of  discipline  becomes  for 
some  people  more  difficult  when  the  developing  method  is  used. 
To  require  children  to  be  still  is  for  some  easier  than  to  control 
their  activity.  Yet  in  either  case  it  must  be  remembered  that 
successful  discipline  depends  on  the  firmness  of  the  teacher  and 
on  mutual  affection  rather  than  on  the  method  of  instruction. 
It  may  be  easier  for  some  teachers  to  be  firm  concerning  the 
simple  rule  'be  still,'  than  to  be  firm  with  regard  to  the  more 
elastic  one,  'help.'  It  is  easier,  however,  to  win  affection  from 
those  who  help  than  from  those  who  are  still." 

The  Development  Plan.  Dr.  Brown  adds:  "Secular 
educators  are  more  and  more  advocating  the  plan  of  presenting 
the  lesson  by  the  Development  Method  in  class  before  the  text- 
book is  studied. 

"The  text-book,  where  the  scholars  have  one,  is  used  rather. 


IKIW  TO    PRKPAPvE   Til  !■:    LKSSOX  211 

in  place  of  notes.  The  scholars'  self-activity  and  interest  in  class 
are  greatly  increased  by  this  method.  The  strongest  argument 
for  studying  the  text-book  first,  is  that  by  so  doing  the  scholar 
learns  the  practical  use  of  books. 

"We  are  not  concerned  tiiat  Sunday  School  children  shall 
learn  to  use  lesson  leaflets.  Even  if  we  were,  we  could  rely  on 
their  secular  teaching  to  give  them  that  power.  We  are,  however, 
anxious  that  they  learn  to  use  the  Bible.  In  order  to  teach  them 
this  we  must  have  them  individually  and  by  themselves  endeavor 
to  use  it.  We  also  want  them  to  enjoy  it.  To  accomplish  this 
we  must  give  them  such  parts  to  read  or  study  as  cannot  fail  to 
interest  them.  For  the  first  few  years  of  home  Bible  work  in 
connection  with  the  Sunday  School  the  story  is  about  all  that 
will  interest  the  child.  Let  us  therefore  pick  out  interesting 
stories,  assign  them  for  home  reading,  one  each  week,  and  when 
assigning  a  given  story  explain  any  matter  the  knowledge  of 
which  is  important  for  the  intelligent  reading  of  it. 

"Happily,  owing  to  the  exceptional  nature  of  Bible  work, 
this  will  not  interfere  with  the  use  of  the  Development  Method 
in  class.  The  younger  scholars  should  read  the  Bible  story  for 
the  simple  interest  in  the  story.  In  class  they  study  a  subject, 
beginning  with  their  own  experience,  and  leading  to  a  spiritual 
truth.  The  Bible  story  is  but  one  source  from  which  their  con- 
clusion is  derived.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  we  plan  a  slightly 
different  title  for  the  class  lesson  from  that  used  for  the  home 
study.  With  scholars  old  enough  to  be  taught  to  seek  a  spiritual 
thought  in  their  home  Bible  study,  the  teacher  should  be  careful 
to  draw  out  the  scholars'  thoughts,  but  he  should  also  be  careful 
that  he  present  a  new,  fresh  view  of  the  matter  in  the  class.  In 
other  words,  as  has  already  been  said,  the  class  lesson  must  be 
quite  another  matter  from  the  lesson  studied  at  home.  The 
teachers  work  is  to  lead  the  scholars  to  see  a  spiritual  thought 
just  above  what  they  would  see  unaided. 

"With  regard  to  the  advisability  of  putting  the  Bible  into 
the  hands  of  young  people  much  has  been  said.  Practically,  if 
children  are  given  Bibles  when  so  young  that  they  find  it  diffi- 
cult to  read  more  than  the  appointed  lesson,  even  if  the  lessons 
are  wisely  chosen,  they  are  easily  led  to  feel  that  much  of  the 
Bible  is  incomprehensible  to  them,  and  that  the  way  to  enjoy  it 


212  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

is  to  read  the  portions  assigned.  This  soon  becomes  a  habit,  and 
the  child  is  in  much  less  danger  than  when  brought  up  to  wonder 
why  he  should  not  read  it.  It  is  a  serious  question  whether  the 
habit  of  keeping  the  Bible  from  children  is  not  responsible  for 
its  wide-spread  disuse  among  adults." 

It  is  said  by  Professor  Adams :  "We  must  make  our  pupils 
not  only  to  know  about  their  Bibles,  but  know  the  Bible  itself. 
We  must  make  them  go  back  to  the  sacred  pages  and  find  the  real 
lesson  in  the  very  words  of  the  Book.  Scientific  teaching,  and 
Bibles  especially  prepared  for  children,  are  apt  to  make  us  for- 
get the  dignity  and  beauty  of  the  Word  itself.  A  well-taught 
lesson  will  always  end  where  it  began — within  the  boards  of  the 
Bible  itself." 

Dr.  Brown  remarks :  "Eich  detail  does  not  necessarily  mean 
many  words.  In  the  Bible  stories  it  is  usually  expressed  in  a  few 
well  chosen  and  telling  words.  In  the  Balaam  story  the  angel 
stood  in  Balaam's  way  three  different  times.  Each  time  we  are 
told  definitely  about  the  road  at  that  particular  place.  All  this 
and  more  is  vividly  given  in  six  ordinary  Bible  verses. 

"There  are  occasionally  lessons  that  should  not  be  treated 
by  this  process  of  analysis  and  synthesis.  We  accept  certain 
matters  as  types,  and  proceed  by  deductive  reasoning  as  we 
would  from  a  previously  established  general  law.  The  account 
of  the  Resurrection,  or  of  the  Ascension,  for  instance,  is  better 
treated  as  a  type." 

One  Central  Thought  for  Each  Lesson.  "In  the  first 
place,  a  lesson  is  much  stronger,  as  well  as  more  interesting, 
when  a  single  central  thought  is  taken.  We  are  not  neglecting 
an  opportunity  when  we  deliberately  put  aside  all  but  one  of  the 
list  of  thoughts  suggested  in  our  lesson  help.  We  may  even  put 
them  all  aside  for  a  thought  of  our  own,"  says  Dr.  Brown,  ad- 
ding: "In  the  second  place  there  are  certain  truths  that  belong 
especially  to  certain  parts  of  the  Bible.  For  instance,  the  gos- 
pels teach  of  self-sacrificing  love.  The  book  of  Genesis  teaches, 
let  us  say,  of  man's  free  will  and  power  to  choose  whether  he 
will  walk  with  God  or  yield  to  lower  impulses.  Each  of  these 
sections  can  be  made  to  include  many  of  the  teachings  of  the 
other,  but  to  try  to  teach  the  gospel  through  the  book  of  Genesis, 


now   TO   PREPARH   THK   LESSON  213 

or  vice  versa,  is  like  seeking  strawberries  in  November  or  re- 
stricting one's  diet  to  the  winter  roots  in  June." 

Again,  the  single  lessons  frequently  have  truths  that  are 
habitually  thought  of  as  connected  with  them.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, tiiey  are  not  the  thouglits  that  we  want  for  our  particular 
classes;  and  occasionally  they  do  not  seem  to  be  the  richest 
thoughts  that  the  passages  have  to  ofTor.  What  are  the  thoughts 
that  draw  man  to  a  spiritual  Father?  What  are  the  thoughts 
that  operate  to  form  a  great  gulf  between  man  and  that  Father? 

Correlation.  This  is  a  much  abused  word  for  a  veiy  sim- 
ple thing.  It  means  merely  the  realization  that  the  child  is  a 
unit  and  that  the  Sunday  School  should  take  cognizance  of  the 
facts  that  have  been  taught  in  the  day  school ;  that  the  so-called 
secular  knowledge  of  the  child  is  a  part  of  his  general  knowl- 
edge; that  the  Sunday  School  teacher  should  learn  just  how  far 
the  child  has  studied  in  the  day  school  and  should  make  use  of 
that  knowledge  in  cross  references  in  the  Sunday  School  lesson. 

President  Butler  says,  in  the  Principles  of  Religious 
Education  :  "The  Sunday  School  must,  first  of  all,  understand 
fully  the  organization,  aims,  and  methods  of  the  public  schools, 
for  it  is  their  ally.  It  must  take  into  consideration  the  progress 
of  the  instruction  there  given  in  secular  subjects,  and  must  cor- 
relate its  own  religious  instruction  with  this.  It  must  study 
facts  of  child-life  and  development,  and  it  must  base  its  methods 
upon  the  actual  needs  and  capacities  of  childhood.  It  must 
organize  its  work  economically  and  scientifically,  and  it  must 
demand  of  its  teachers  special  and  continuous  work." 

Dr.  Brown  treats  the  subject  thus :  "Correlation  also  deals 
with  contributions  which  the  child  can  make  from  his  previously 
acquired  knowledge,  as,  for  instance,  from  other  stories.  This 
gives  strength  and  breadth  to  the  lesson.  In  our  lesson  on  Sam- 
uel, the  child's  own  experience  of  feeling  nearer  to  God  at  times 
when  alone  or  in  Sunday  School  gives  depth  and  realitv  to  the 
lesson  truth.  If  the  child  has  already  learned  the  story  of  God 
speaking  to  the  faithful  Abraham,  to  recall  that  gives  a  wider 
view  of  the  truth. 

"Much  review  work  can  be  introduced  in  this  way.  One 
trouble  of  teachers  is  that  their  scholars  remember  their  lessons 
if  the  questions  are  asked  in  just  the  same  form  as  before,  but  if 


214  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

the  subject  is  approaclied  from  a  slightly  different  point-of-view, 
as  is  sure  to  be  the  case  if  a  visitor  is  allowed  to  question  the 
class,  the  scholars  do  not  recognize  the  subject.  The  habit  of 
calling  up  such  parts  of  previous  lessons  as  fit  the  new  lesson 
subjects  does  much  to  overcome  this  difficulty.  But  the  first 
consideration  must  always  be  the  strengthening  of  the  new  les- 
son. This  is  not  the  place  for  review  proper,  and  no  far-fetched 
comparisons  must  be  brought  in  for  the  sake  of  review. 

"When  facts  from  previous  lessons  are  introduced  for  cor- 
relation it  is  sometimes  called  longitudinal  correlation.  Cross 
correlation  means  the  correlation  of  knowledge  from  the  other 
branches  of  study,  as  geography,  or  science,  or  general  literature, 
with  the  Bible  lessons.  If  our  lesson  is  on  the  Good  Samaritan, 
we  may  have  our  boys  recall  some  highway  robber  scene;  or, 
what  will  help  the  meaning  more,  some  illustrations  of  kindness 
to  enemies.  Boys'  books,  even  their  school  books  in  these  days, 
are  full  of  such  incidents. 

"Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  no  new  material  is 
introduced  under  this  head.  The  object  is  still  to  prepare  the 
mind  for  new  material  that  is  to  follow.  As  has  often  been  said, 
the  mind  is  not  a  vessel  into  which  we  can  at  will  put  what  we 
wish.  Only  in  proportion  as  the  new  comes  into  relationship 
with  what  is  already  in  the  mind  will  the  mind  retain  it.  Only 
in  proportion  as  the  new  is  assimilated  with  the  old  in  the  mind 
can  the  mind  use  it. 

"Cross  correlation,  by  associating  the  highest  spiritual 
truths  with  secular  knowledge  as  well  as  with  Sunday  School 
topics,  does  a  great  service  towards  harmonious  character-devel- 
opment. We  do  not  live  in  Switzerland,  and  our  week-day  paths 
are  not  studded  with  visible  wayside  crosses.  Yet  we  do  wish 
our  week-day  thoughts  lifted  and  sanctified.  This  can  be  done 
partly  by  direct  teaching,  but  more  by  the  association  or  correla- 
tion of  week-day  subjects  with  the  Sunday  School  lesson.  All 
knowledge  and  all  life  must  be  united  in  one  aim.  A  double 
minded  man  is  unstable  in  all  his  ways.  Let  as  many  week-day 
thoughts  as  possible  be  so  associated  with  our  highest  thoughts 
that  they  lift  us  to  our  best." 

Deduction  vs.  Ixductiok.  Professor  Adams  remarks: 
"Deduction  passes  from  the  general  to  the  particular;  Indue- 


now    TO    I'KRI'Ain':    THE    LESSON  215 

(ion  J'roin  the  ])iirti(ul;ir  to  the  general.  Deduction  states  the 
rule  and  then  seeks  or  supplies  examples;  Induction  supplies 
(wainples  and  then  seeks  the  rule.  Now  in  teaching  there  is  room 
for  both,  each  in  its  own  place.  At  the  beginning  of  a  subject, 
Induction  ought  to  play  the  chief  part;  but  as  wc  advance  and 
have  acquired  a  mass  of  knowledge,  wc  shall  find  the  Deductive 
Method  very  useful  in  revising  our  work  and  arranging  our 
acquired  facts.  Induction  is  the  method  of  discovery.  Deduction 
is  the  method  of  securing  and  classifying  the  results  of  our  dis- 
covery. As  a  rule,  the  Sunday  School  teacher  is  prone  to  use  the 
Deductive  Method  only.  His  lesson  too  often  consists  in  merely 
telling  the  pupil  certain  things,  and  then  illustrating  by  stories 
and  other  examples.  The  pupils  are  not  called  upon  to  do  their 
proper  share  of  the  work.  Preaching  has  been  defined  as  'an 
animated  dialogue  with  one  part  left  out.'  In  teaching,  this 
omitted  part  is  of  fundamental  importance,  and  the  intelligent 
teacher  will  insist  upon  its  being  brought  into  play." 

Thorndike  states:  "Good  teaching  by  deductive  methods 
depends  upon  a  clear  statement  of  the  goal  aimed  at,  independent 
search  by  pupils  for  the  proper  class  under  which  to  think  of  the 
fact  in  question,  criticism  by  them  and  by  the  teacher  of  the 
different  classes  suggested,  and  appreciation  of  the  reasons  why 
the  right  one  is  the  right  one. 

"Deductive  reasonings  may  be  very  easy  or  very  hard  to 
make.  'Shall  I  call  brevity  in  the  sentence,  "Brevity  is  the  soul 
of  wit,"  a  noun  or  not?'  is  easy  for  any  scholar  who  knows  a 
little  grammar.  To  prove  that,  if  the  bisectors  of  two  angles  of 
a  triangle  are  equal,  the  angle  is  isosceles,  by  a  direct  demonstra- 
tion based  on  no  truths  other  than  those  established  in,  say, 
Book  I.  of  Wentworth's  Geometry,  is  extremely  hard. 

"They  are  easy  in  proportion  as  the  number  of  possible 
classes  under  which  to  think  of  the  fact  in  question  are  known, 
and  are  few  in  proportion  as  the  consequences  of  being  in  each 
of  such  classes  are  known.  Thus  brevity  can  be  only  a  noun  or 
not  a  noun,  and  to  decide  that  it  is  not  a  noun  needs  only  to 
decide  that  it  is  a  noun  or  that  it  is  not  a  verb,  adjective,  article, 
etc.  How  to  translate  arma  in  "Arma  virumque  cano  Troiae 
qui  primus  ad  oris,  etc.,"  is  easy  because  arma  can  only  be  nomi- 
native, accusative  or  vocative  plural  of  armum  or  an  imperative 


•2.U>  IWAAGIOVS  EDUCATION 

of  armare  and  because  tlic  consequences  of  being  nominative 
plural,  being  vocative  plural,  etc.,  are  well  known. 

"Deductive  reasonings  are  hard  in  proportion  as  the  possible 
classes  under  which  to  think  of  the  given  fact  are  unknown  or 
numerous,  and  in  proportion  as  the  consequences  of  being  in 
each  of  such  are  unknown.  To  give  a  direct  proof  of  the  propo- 
sition that  if  the  bisectors  of  two  angles  of  a  triangle  are  equal 
the  triangle  is  isosceles  is  hard  because  there  are  hundreds  of 
ways  of  thinking  of  (or  classes  under  which  to  subsume)  a  tri- 
angle with  the  bisectors  of  two  of  its  angles  equal,  many  of  which 
the  student  will  never  have  thought  of  at  all.  '^How  to  best 
legislate  so  as  to  decrease  divorces?'  is  harder  to  answer  than 
'How  to  translate  arma?'  because  the  law  to  decrease  divorce  is 
a  thing  of  such  varied  possibilities  and  also  because  the  conse- 
quences of  each  one  of  these  are  so  little  known." 

As  we  apply  this  in  our  Sunday  School  work,  we  see  that  the 
Catechism  is  par  excellence  a  pure  example  of  the  deductive 
method.  Yet  for  memory's  sake,  as  well  as  for  practical  relig- 
ious reasons,  we  want  to  teach  the  Catechism  at  an  early  age. 
How  can  it  be  done?  There  was  a  time  when  we  recognized  a 
distinction  in  day  school  studies,  speaking  of  the  subjects  of 
arithmetic  and  grammar  as  the  formal  studies.  Yet  in  the  kin- 
dergarten to-day  grammar  and  arithmetic  are  frequently  taught 
by  the  inductive  method.  In  languages  this  is  called  the  Natural 
Method.  A  generation  ago  we  learned  the  rules  of  grammar 
first  and  then  applied  them,  now  we  learn  the  language  and  then 
the  rules.  The  younger  the  scholars,  the  more  necessary  the 
Natural  or  Inductive  Method.  High  school  students  can  fre- 
quently well  dispense  with  the  Inductive  Method  and  use  the 
Deductive  Method.  The  point  is  that  Deduction  cannot  be 
appreciated  until  the  child  can  see  relations,  the  cause  and  effect, 
the  abstract.  Arithmetic  taught  by  the  Inductive  Method  gives 
tlie  child  sticks  and  blocks  by  which  he  can  practically  measure 
out  multiplication,  addition,  division,  subtraction,  and  fractions. 
It  is  proceding  from  the  particular  to  the  general. 

Now  the  Catechism  can  be  taught,  and  is  taught  in  the  best 
schools,  by  the  Inductive  Method.  The  individual  truths  are 
taught,  illustrated  by  the  Inductive  setting  of  the  particular  ex- 
amples of  Old  Testament  or  New  Testament;  then  later  on  the 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  THE  LESSON  217 

Rule  is  formulated.  Dr.  A.  A.  Butler  has  covered  this  point 
very  fully  in  his  Ciiuucn.MAN's  Manual  on  pages  112  following. 

Forbush,  speaking  of  antiquated  methods  in  teaching,  says : 
"Two  vicious  methods  are  now  in  vogue:  the  Lancastrian,  or 
catechetical,  and  the  homiletic.  The  first  is  obsolete  in  all  other 
education.  The  second,  confined  to  religious  instruction,  and 
old-fashioned  '^grammar'  school  work,  is  based  on  the  idea  that 
the  Spirit  of  God  and  of  common  sense  is  so  absent  from  the 
child  that  he  will  never  see  the  good  nor  do  it  unless  a  moral  is 
tagged  to  every  verse  in  the  lesson.  This  method,  that  of  the 
sermonette,  may  do  in  the  adult  Bible  Class,  but  it  is  useless  in 
the  junior  classes.  It  is  unfortunately  perpetuated  by  most  of 
the  popular  'helps'  published  for  teachers." 

The  Co-operation  of  the  Pupils.  Dr.  Butler  urges: 
"The  Cooperation  of  Pupils  is  Indispensable.  We  must  make 
them  responsible  for  the  success  of  the  class.  We  must  plan  to 
do  nothing  that  we  can  get  our  pupils  to  do.  We  must  tell  them 
nothing  that  they  can  find  out  for  themselves,  or  that  we  can 
draw  out  of  them  by  wise  questioning.  The  pupil's  home-work, 
note-books,  pictures,  and  preparation  of  class  papers,  is  im- 
portant." According  to  Forbush:  "The  fello^vship  instinct  was 
utilized  in  making  additional  reviews  by  having  a  'class  life  of 
Christ,'  to  which  each  member  contributed  a  chapter  in  turn, 
and  by  having  a  'class  log,'  in  which  each  in  turn  described  the 
places  where  he  has  been. 

"There  need  be  no  fear  that  such  study  is  not  'spiritual.' 
Attention  and  reverence  are  surely  spiritual  forces.  Such  meth- 
ods fit  the  boys,  interest  them,  hold  them,  instruct  them.  The 
geographical  and  picturesque,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  become  the 
vehicle  of  the  spiritual.  My  own  experience  was  that  the  stereo- 
scope itself  was,  unexpectedly,  a  powerful  instrument  for  teach- 
ing the  individual.  Isolated  behind  his  hood,  looking  as  if  from 
a  dark  room  through  a  window  into  a  strange  world,  his  ears  as 
alert  as  his  eyes,  each  of  my  twenty-six  boys  received  impressions 
that  were  deep,  lasting,  personal.  I  was  teaching,  not  a  class, 
but  twenty-six  separate  hearts." 

A  method  of  study  in  which  the  picturesque  has  less  atten- 
tion, while  the  analysis  of  character  has  more,  has  been  care- 
fully worked  out  by  the  Eev.  John  L.  Keedy.    Here  "the  pupils 


218  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

pass  judgment  upon  each  action,  they  approve  or  disapprove  of 
each  person.  Admiration  runs  out  into  choice."  The  notebook 
is  constantly  used  and  serious  attention  is  demanded  to  some- 
thing which  the  boys  recognize  as  worth  while.  While  boys  do 
come  to  Sunday  School  usually  with  a  blase  manner,  their  curios- 
ity will  respond  if  real  and  fresh  information  is  actually  pre- 
sented. 

The  Elements  in  a  Review.  "Three  progressive  steps  are 
involved  in  the  reviewing  of  a  lesson:  a  repetition  of  it,  a  second 
view  or  viewing  again  of  it,  and  a  new  view  of  it.  The  repetition 
of  it  may  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  mechanical.  The  second  view 
of  it,  or  a  viewing  again  of  it,  may  comprehend  simply  those 
elements  which  were  recognized  in  the  first  view  or  original 
learning  of  the  lesson.  This  is  valuable.  The  new  view  of  it, 
however,  seeing  it  in  new  aspects  and  relations,  is  by  far  the 
most  important  phase  of  reviewing,"  says  See. 

The  Importance  of  Eeviews.  "Comparatively  few  un- 
trained teachers  appreciate  the  importance  of  reviews,"  he  adds. 
"With  some  this  is  simply  the  result  of  neglect  or  thoughtless- 
ness; witti  others,  the  positive  feeling  that  time  spent  on  reviews 
is  time  largely  lost.  Trumbull  says,  'The  schools  of  the  Jesuits, 
as  perfected  under  Aquaviva  three  centuries  ago,  were  quite  in 
advance  of  anything  the  world  has  yet  known  in  the  educa- 
tional line;  and  their  power  and  effectiveness  were  such  as  to 
stay,  in  large  measure,  the  progress  of  the  Protestant  Eeforma- 
tion  in  Europe.  The  methods  of  those  schools  are  still  worthy 
of  imitation  in  many  points.  In  their  system  of  teaching,  re- 
view, as  a  means  of  fastening  the  truth  taught,  was  given  a 
large  prominence.'  On  this  point  Kobert  Herbert  Quick  says: 
'One  of  the  maxims  of  this  system  was,  "Repetition  is  the  mother 
of  studies."  Every  lesson  was  connected  with  two  repetitions; 
one,  before  it  began,  of  preceding  work,  and  the  other,  at  the 
close,  of  the  work  just  done.  Besides  this,  one  day  a  week  was 
devoted  entirely  to  repetition.'  A  teacher's  appreciation  of  the 
importance  of  the  review  will  be  measured  to  some  extent  by  the 
time  he  spends  upon  it  in  the  class  session.  Gregory  says  that 
the  best  teachers  give  about  one-third  of  each  lesson  hour  to 
reviews." 

Dr.  Brown  says:  "Some  teachers  go  to  considerable  length 


now   TO   I'KEPARE   THE   LESSON  -219 

in  trying  to  Tix  the  lessons'  in  the  scholars'  minds.  Reviews  are 
important.  It  has  also  been  suggested  that  old  material  be  used 
in  correlation  and  in  the  lesson  setting.  But  when  new  material 
has  been  properly  introduced  and  made  interesting,  it  is  easy  to 
overdo  the  fixing  process.  It  seems  preferable  that  none  of  it 
should  come  between  the  lesson  story  and  the  conclusion. 

"Putting  the  lesson  outline  on  the  blackboard  is  to  make  the 
child  conscious  of  the  skeleton  or  luacliinery  of  our  work.  It  is 
work  for  normal  classes.  Tracing  the  lesson  on  a  map  or  sand 
pile  is  to  distract  the  scholar  from  the  vivid  mental  picture.  It 
is  work  for  geography  classes.  Some  map  work  can  be  brought 
in  under  the  lesson  setting.  Some  sand  pile  work  and  map  or 
picture  drawing  can  be  given  as  review  work.  Some  subjects, 
as  the  tabernacle  or  the  temple,  can  be  even  studied  in  a  con- 
structive way.  Activity  is  certainly  desirable.  But  to  put  such 
work  between  the  story  and  the  conclusion,  or  even  between  the 
story  and  the  close  of  Sunday  School,  is  to  dim  the  mental  pic- 
ture, to  disconnect  and  almost  surely  lose  the  spiritual  thought, 
and  to  put  physical  activity  in  the  place  of  spiritual  activity." 

Examinations.  Thorndike  says:  "No  matter  how  care- 
fully one  tries  to  follow  the  right  principles  of  teaching,  how 
ingeniously  one  selects  and  how  adroitly  one  arranges  stimuli, 
it  is  advisable  to  test  the  result  of  one's  effort,  to  make  sure  that 
the  knowledge  or  power  or  tendency  expected  has  really  been 
acquired.  Just  as  the  scientist,  though  he  has  made  his  facts  as 
accurate  and  his  argument  as  logical  as  he  can,  still  remains 
unsatisfied  until  he  verifies  his  conclusion  by  testing  it  with  new 
facts,  so  the  teacher,  after  planning  and  executing  a  piece  of 
work  as  well  as  he  can,  must  S-erify'  his  teaching  by  direct  tests 
of  its  results  and  must  consider  uncertain  any  result  that  he  can- 
not thus  verify. 

"Testing  the  results  of  one's  teaching  is  useful  not  only  be- 
cause it  gives  a  basis  for  improvements  in  one's  methods,  but 
also  because  it  is  one  chief  means  of  gaining  knowledge  of  the 
mental  content  and  special  capacities  of  individuals.  In  apply- 
ing the  principle  of  apperception  a  teacher  is  constantly  led  to 
test  the  results  of  knowledge  previously  given  as  a  preliminary 
to  giving  more.  For  the  main  thing  in  fitting  stinmli  to  the 
mental  makeup  of  pupils  is  not  a  host  of  ready-made  devices  to 


220  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

secure  the  cooperation  of  previous  experience;  it  is  rather  con- 
stant readiness  in  testing  for  the  presence  of  the  essentials,  in 
diagnosing  the  exact  result  of  previous  lessons. 

"Testing  the  results  of  teaching  is  useful  to  the  class  as  well 
as  to  the  teacher,  and  to  the  class  directly  as  well  as  indirectly 
through  the  betterment  of  future  steps  in  teaching.  Any  scholar 
needs  to  know  that  he  knows  as  well  as  to  merely  know;  to  be 
ignorant,  and  know  that  you  are  so,  is  far  more  promising  than 
to  be  ignorant  and  not  know  it.  By  expression  and  use  new 
ideas  and  habits  get  a  double  value ;  boys  and  girls  in  school  need 
to  know  what  progress  their  efforts  have  achieved  and  to  guide 
their  efforts  by  objective  facts  as  well  as  by  their  own  sense  of 
progress. 

"The  principle  is  indeed  easy,  but  its  successful,  concrete 
application  requires  both  a  high  degree  of  capacity  for  insight 
into  the  facts  of  child  life  and  thorough  training.  The  prin- 
ciple is  simply :  To  know  whether  anyone  has  given  a  mental 
state,  see  if  he  can  use  it;  to  know  whether  anyone  will  make  a 
given  response  to  a  certain  situation,  put  him  in  the  situation 
arranged  so  that  response  and  that  response  alone  will  pro- 
duce a  certain  result,  and  see  if  that  result  is  produced.  The 
test  for  both  mental  states  and  mental  connections  is  appro- 
priate action." 

Adult  Classes. 

Professor  Irving  F.  Wood,  in  a  25-cent  brochure  on  Adult 
Bible  Classes  and  How  to  Conduct  Them,  deals  very  fidly 
and  suggestively  with  this  very  different  type  of  student.  The 
difference  is  so  important  that  all  teachers  of  older  scholars  ought 
to  read  his  book.  Under  the  Chapter  on  "How  to  Question"  we 
have  quoted  from  him  regarding  the  difference  in  approach 
necessary  between  younger  pupils  and  adults.  General  question- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  out  of  place,  altogether,  with  the 
older  classes  and  the  principles  of  cooperation  and  discussion 
necessarily  take  its  place. 

Types  in  Teaching. 

In  secular  education.  Types  play  a  large  factor;  and  the  gen- 
eral trend  of  opinion  to-day  is  to  make  a  most  prominent  use  of 
them,  so  far  as  possible  in  every  department.     The  plan  of  typi- 


HOW  TO   rRErARK   THK    LESSON  221 

cal  elements,  typical  characters,  typical  bays,  countries,  rivers, 
mountains,  typical  industries,  etc.,  seems  to  form  the  groundwork 
of  numberless  lesson-plans.  The  idea  is  a  good  one:  (a)  because 
it  supplies  the  foundation  for  grouping  certain  characteristics 
which  belong  to  classes;  (h)  it  aids  in  generalizing,  forming 
concepts,  practically  being  a  model  form  of  unifying  knowledge. 
To  that  extent  it  is  labor-saving,  memory  relieving.  The  child 
does  not  have  to  master  the  characteristics  of  each  new  object. 
He  has  left  only  the  few  peculiar  and  unique  dissimilarities  or 
differences  which  differentiate  it  from  others  of  the  general  type. 
So  the  medical  student  learns  the  typical  features  of  fevers,  of 
the  exanthemata,  and  then  easily  stores  up  the  specific  marks 
and  symptoms  of  each  disease  among  them.  So  with  the  action 
of  drugs,  which  he  groups  in  classes.  This  plan  has  not  been 
sufficiently  emphasized  in  religious  education. 

In  our  devotion  to  Bible  History,  to  isolated  Pictures,  to 
the  Biographies  of  Heroes,  etc.,  we  have  not,  as  yet,  provided  a 
single  Course  of  Lessons  (so  far  as  we  are  aware)  based  on 
T\^es.  We  occasionally  mention  Types,  as  in  the  case  of  men 
who  were  "Types  of  our  Blessed  Lord" ;  but  we  do  not  plan  types, 
as  a  Type  Sermon  of  Christ  on  True  Giving;  or  a  Type  Charac- 
ter of  a  Worldly  Young  Man,  etc.  There  is  abundant  scope, 
whatever  be  our  required  system  of  lessons,  for  opportunity  to 
use  this  little  hint,  and  develop  our  topics  occasionally  on  the 
type  form.  Our  children  will  at  once  appreciate  our  approach 
to  Day  School  work  in  this  particular.  The  more  we  adopt  such 
advanced  economical  methods  in  our  Sunday  School  System,  the 
more  will  the  School  of  the  Church  win  respect  and  cooperation. 

Professor  Charles  McMurry  ^vrites:  "To  answer  the  im- 
portant question  how  a  healthy  and  sustained  interest  is  to  be 
awakened  in  studies  would  be  to  solve  many  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  in  teaching.  To  interest  children,  not  merely  for  the 
hour,  but  permanently;  to  select,  arrange,  and  so  present  ideas 
that  they  awaken  a  steady  appetite  for  more  knowledge  and  cre- 
ate a  taste  for  what  is  excellent,  this  is  at  least  one  aim  that  we 
must  insist  upon  in  recitation  work.  Story,  biography,  liistory, 
poetry,  natural  objects,  and  Xature,  each  in  its  time  and  place, 
awakens  mind  and  heart,  and  sows  seeds  that  will  germinate  and 


222  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

grow."  Many  of  the  liints  tlu'own  out  in  the  section  on  Tlio 
Point  of  Contact  are  of  value  here. 

Dr.  Brown  i)uts  it  thus:  "There  are  occasionally  lessons 
that  should  not  he  treated  by  this  process  of  analysis  and  synthe- 
sis. We  accept  certain  matters  as  types,  and  proceed  by  deduc- 
tive reasoning  as  we  would  from  a  previously  established  gen- 
eral law.  The  account  of  the  Resurrection,  or  of  the  Ascension, 
for  instance,  is  better  treated  as  a  type.  We  may  prepare  the 
way  for  the  thought  of  resurrection  by  illustrations  from  what 
the  scholar  knows  to  take  place  in  Nature;  but  our  reason  for  be- 
lieving that  we  shall  rise  is  because  Christ  has  told  us  so,  and 
has  shown  Himself,  our  accepted  type,  to  have  risen.  This 
"^type'  form  of  lesson  is  easily  misused.  It  should  seldom  be 
resorted  to,  and  the  teacher  should  be  careful  never  to  slip  into 
it  unconsciously." 

When  children  have  shown  themselves  quick  at  seeing  the 
conclusion,  it  is  often  well  to  omit  the  lesson  conclusion  entirely. 
For  instance,  if  the  story  of  the  Prodigal  Son  has  been  well  intro- 
duced, with  strong  point  of  contact  and  correlation,  it  might  be 
quite  enough  to  merely  ask  in  conclusion.  Whom  does  the  father 
in  this  story  represent?  Whom  does  the  prodigal  son  represent? 
The  children  will  feel  the  meaning  and  force  of  the  story  better 
than  we  can  express  it.  Most  conclusions  are  better  either  left  to 
the  children's  ready  intuitions,  or  expressed  in  standard  words, 
as  from  a  hymn  or  the  Bible. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  How  would  you  definitely  go  about  preparing  next  Sunday's  Lesson, 

according  to  now  ideas  you  have  gleaned  from  this  chapter? 

2.  What  particular  Laws  seem  to  appeal  to  you  most  as  helpful  ? 

3.  Could  you  apply  such  a  method  regularly  to  your  present  Lesson 

Sj'stem?     If   not,   why   not?     Is   it  your   fault,   or   that  of   the 
System  ? 

4.  If   such   sort  of   Preparation   as   indicated   hero   is    tlie    usual    and 

proper  plan  of  procedure  for  Secular  Lessons,  why  should  it  not 
be  used  in  the  Sunday  School?  Is  not  all  Teaching  the  same  in 
principle? 

5.  What   do    you    think    of    the    value    of    Types    in    Teaching?    Give 

reasons. 
G.    Give  the  Five  Ilcrbartian  "Steps"  and  plan  a  Lesson  with  their  use. 
7.    Compare  Deduction  and  Induction  in  value  and  pedagogy. 


ClIxiPTEE  XII. 

HOW  MUCH  CHILDREN  KNOW,  OR  "THE  POINT  OF  CONTACT" 
IN   TEACHING. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 
Point  of  Contact: 

Thk  I'dLST  OF  Contact  in  Teaching.     Du  Dois. 
Syllabi  s  to  Above.     Hervey. 

I'EDAUOOICAL    lilULE    SCHOOL.       IlazlCtt.       p.    IIG. 

Tkainino  of  the  Twig.     Drawbridge,     p.  74. 

A  Pkimeu  of  Teaching.     Adams. 

Teacheu  Training.     Roads,     pp.  ()5-G7. 

The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.     Greyory.     p.  G7,  pp.  50-59-07. 

The  Contents  of  Chiluuen's  Minds.     Uall. 

The   Heligious   Content  of  the  Child-Mind.     Hall,   in   Principles   of 

Rel.  Ed. 
The  Xew  I'STCHOLOGY.     Gordy.     pp.  288-293. 

The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching. 

This  is  the  title  of  a  delightful  little  book  by  Patterson 
Du  Bois.  lu  it  lie  sums  up  most  attractively  a  galaxy  of  funda- 
mental points  of  Philosophy  and  Ps3'chology,  some  of  which  will 
prove  of  inestimable  assistance  to  most  of  us.  What  is  first  as 
cause  may  he  last  in  discovery  to  the  child.  What  is  truly  known 
must  he  known  hy  experience.  A  child  knows  at  first  only  the 
concrete,  hi  all  teaching,  proceed  from  the  Known  to  the  Un- 
known. Therefore  find  the  Point  of  Contact,  that  is,  the  Point 
of  Interest,  the  Child's  Life-plane,  and  make  it  the  Point  of  De- 
parture and  Sympathy  in  all  teaching.  The  great  fault  in  our 
Sunday  School  teaching  has  been  that  we  have  not  sought  the 
chihrs  penetrable  point.  "We  have  approached  him  through 
adult  ideas,  upon  an  adult  plane.  Truly,  we  have  spoken  baby- 
talk  to  him;  but  in  our  baby-talk  we  have  spoken  to  hira  truths 
unsuitcd  to  babies.  Let  us  analyze  these  concise  rules  a  mo- 
ment : 

(1)  What  is  first  as  cause  may  he  last  in  discovery  to  the 
Child.     This  means  that  the  small  child,  as  we  have  said  be- 


224  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

fore,  is  concrete,  does  not  reason,  literally  does  not  think;  it 
means  that  he  does  not  see  Cause  and  Effect;  he  does  not  see 
how  this  thing  came  about;  nor  does  he  see  why  he  should  not 
do  that  thing,  nor  what  it  will  lead  to  in  elfect.  In  this  rule  is 
summed  up  in  a  nutshell  much  of  the  essential  elements  of  sound 
teaching.  As  Du  Bois  says :  "The  Creation  as  recorded  in  the 
Bible  comes  historically  before  my  birth;  but  logically  my 
knowledge  of  the  sun  must  begin  with  the  light  in  my  room;  my 
study  of  the  rock  strata  must  begin  with  the  stones  in  the  garden 
path ;  of  the  water,  with  my  morning  bath ;  of  the  animals,  with 
my  pussy  or  the  flies.  It  is  a  recognized  philosophical  principle 
that  what  is  historically  first  may  be  logically  last,  and  what  is 
logically  first  may  be  historically  last." 

(2)  What  is  truly  known  must  he  known  hy  experience. 
Du  Bois  treats  the  above  as  follows:  "We  can  appeal  to  cliild- 
hood  from  the  general  plane  or  ordinary  range  of  experiences 
most  characteristic  of  childhood.  Says  H.  Courthope  Bowen : 
'What  interests  a  child  must  be  immediate  and  level  to  his 
thought.  He  cannot  realize  a  far-off  advantage ;  or,  at  any  rate, 
he  cannot  feel  it  for  long.  Young  and  old,  Ave  all  experience 
delight  in  discovering,  or  in  being  helped  to  see,  connections  be- 
tween isolated  facts — especially  such  as  we  have  ourselves  picked 
up/  " 

Manifestly  the  plane  of  experience,  the  germination  of  in- 
terest, the  genesis  of  study,  will  be  simple  rather  than  complex, 
concrete  rather  than  abstract.  As  Lange  says :  "The  numerous 
concrete,  fresh,  and  strong  ideas  gained  in  earliest  youth  are  the 
best  helps  to  apperception  for  all  subsequent  learning."  But 
these  germinal  ideas  have  no  affiliation  with  the  "regular  se- 
quences" of  theology;  they  will  not  be  found  in  the  local,  polit- 
ical, or  religious  issues,  or  the  imagery  of  Ezekiel,  Haggai, 
Zcchariah,  Nehemiah,  Nahum,  Micah,  or  Habakkuk,  or  the  com- 
plex rituals  and  regulations  of  the  Mosaic  era.  Supposing  the 
elders  of  the  Jews  did  build  and  prosper  through  the  prophesy- 
ing of  Haggai  the  prophet  and  Zcchariah  the  son  of  Iddo — what 
is  that  to  a  babe  who  has  no  conception  of  space,  time,  organized 
society,  or  even  of  our  commonest  adult  conventionalities  ?  How 
near  are  the  Ten  Commandments  to  the  plane  of  experience  of 
a  child  who  cannot  count  up  to  ten  nor  even  above  four  ? 


•TIIK   I'tMNT  OK  (ONTACT"'   IX   TKACillNCJ  2i:j 

J)li  iJois  Ic'lLs  llu'  story  oi'  ;in  older  si.'^hu-  trying  lo  answer 
I  he  qnestion  of  her  little  Iii-uiIkt  Kobbic — "Tell  how  sidewalks 
were  made."  To  the  high  school  girl  the  sidewalks  were  laid  on 
the  ground,  so  she  began  to  explain  the  ground  and  its  history 
(irst.  To  the  ehild  the  ground  was  hidden  under  the  sidewalks. 
His  tlrst  experienee  with  earth  was  not  the  underlying  ground 
but  the  overlaying  sidewalks.  She  had  thought  to  begin  with 
the  real  beginning  of  God's  work,  instead  of  that  which  was 
within  the  child's  plane  of  experience — the  point  of  contact  with 
the  world  as  the  child  sees  it. 

('.])  The  child  at  first  hnows  onJij  the  concrete.  This  has 
been  alhuled  to  frequently  l)efore  and  needs  only  the  merest 
reference  here.  It  means  that  we  must  deal  with  things,  witli 
objects,  pictures,  those  ideas  thai  will  cause  iJie  rornuilion  ot" 
mental  images,  products  of  the  imagination.  As  we  illustrated 
before,  it  is  not  dogs  as  a  class,  but  his  dog;  not  books  in  general, 
but  the  book;  not  principles  in  general,  but  a  person  living  the 
])rincij)les. 

(4)  In  all  leaching  proceed  from  Ihr  Jnioirn  lo  the  itn- 
knuirn.  Some  people  never  start  from  tlu;  known,  but  ])rocee<l 
from  the  unknown  to  the  unknown  and  remain  in  the  unknown 
all  the  time.  They  never  get  down  to  earth.  ])u  Bois  tells  the 
story  of  the  great  kindergartner,  Miss  Harrison,  dealing  with  a 
class  of  mission  children,  whose  point  of  contact  from  the  known 
to  the  uid\nown  was  a  shoe  hox  brought  by  one  of  the  lads, 
which  illustrates  this  idea.  Therefore,  find  the  point  of  contact, 
that  is  the  Point  of  Interest,  the  Child's  Tjife  Plane,  and  make  it 
the  Point  of  Commencement  and  Sympathy  in  all  teaching. 

The   Plane  of  Experience. 

Stop  and  think  for  a  moment  in  your  teaching  just  what  the 
Experience  of  your  children  has  been.  Are  they  city  or  country 
chihlren?  If  city-bred,  how  much  do  they  actually  knoiv  of  the 
country,  and  vice  versa?  What  interests  a  child  must  be  im- 
mediate and  level  to  his  thoughts.  Imported  material  will  not 
hold  him.  Political  issues  of  the  Divided  Kingdom,  Ritual  of 
the  j\Iosaic  Law,  even  the  details  of  the  Ten  Commandments  for 
a  child  that  cannot  count  above  four,  are  somewhat  above  the 
children's  plane  of  experience    (  I)      We  dare  not  select   Holy 


226  RELIGTOIS  EIHCATION 

Scripture,  remote  from  a  child's  plane  of  experience,  and  then 
suppose  that  just  because  it  is  God's  Word,  God  will  work  a 
miracle  in  order  that  it  may  he  understood.  The  child  may  even 
have  enjoyed  memory  work  that  it  has  not  in  the  remotest  de- 
gree comprehended,  because  of  the  verbal  jingle  bound  up  in  it. 

How  Much  Children  Know. 

Professor  Hall,  in  a  sweeping  investigation  of  Boston  school 
children,  just  after  entering  school  (say  from  six  up),  found 
that  20  per  cent,  of  these  did  not  know  that  wooden  things  were 
made  from  trees;  47  per  cent,  never  saw  a  pig;  and  over  13  per 
cent,  did  not  know  their  cheek,  forehead,  or  throat ;  80  per  cent, 
did  not  know  what  a  beehive  was;  over  90  per  cent,  did  not  know 
their  ribs;  81  per  cent.,  their  lungs;  80  per  cent.,  their  heart, 
and  70  per  cent,  their  wrist;  21  per  cent,  did  not  know  the  dif- 
ference between  their  right  and  left  hands,  and  35  per  cent,  had 
never  been  in  the  country  in  their  lives.  Most  of  them  thought 
many  aninuils  were  no  larger  than  their  pictures. 

Of  10,000  children  in  Berlin,  on  whom  tests  were  made,  he 
says  that  at  the  age  of  beginning  school  work,  40  per  cent,  of 
the  boys  and  GO  per  cent,  of  the  girls  had  not  heard  of  God,  and 
about  the  same  proportion,  of  Christ;  72  per  cent,  of  boys  and 
28  per  cent,  of  girls  had  heard  Bible  stories;  only  53  per  cent,  of 
boys  and  46  per  cent,  of  girls  had  learned  any  prayers  or  hymns, 
etc.,  to  a  prolonged  and  detailed  table. 

Dr.  K.  Lange  examined  children  in  the  city  schools  of 
Paulen  and  the  outlying  districts  and  compared  city  and  country 
children  as  follows:  Out  of  500  city  children  and  300  country 
children  examined,  18  city  and  42  country  had  seen  the  sun  rise; 
about  80  per  cent,  of  each  had  seen  a  shoemaker  at  work;  28  per 
cent,  of  city  and  63  per  cent,  of  country  youngsters  knew  that 
bread  came  from  grain ;  and  finally  only  50  per  cent,  of  city  and 
49  per  cent,  of  country  children  had  ever  been  to  Church. 

Still  another  examination  was  made  in  Kansas  City,  and 
the  comparison  then  was  between  white  and  colored  children. 
In  matters  relating  to  the  human  body,  the  white  race  averaged 
about  15  per  cent,  less  as  compared  with  an  average  of  70  or  80 
per  cent,  of  the  Boston  children,  and  the  colored  averaged  about 
5  per  cent,  less  in  knowledge.     In  matters  of  the  country,  Kansas 


"THE  POINT  OF  CONTACT"  IN  TEACHING  227 

City  children  were  far  bcliind  the  Boston  ones,  showing  that  even 
cities  may  differ.  In  few  cases,  if  any,  were  the  Kansas  City 
children  higher  in  knowledge. 

But  this  ignorance  is  not  confined  to  small  children.  Dr. 
A.  A.  Butler,  in  an  address  before  the  Sunday  School  Federation 
in  Boston  in  1904,  said :  "Perhaps,  however,  someone  is  saying, 
'the  tens  of  thousands  who  receive  the  instruction  of  the  private 
school  and  the  university  are  better  educated  than  the  child  of 
the  average  family.'  Better  intellectually?  Yes.  Better  re- 
ligiously? No,  decidedly  no.  You  remember  that  a  few  years 
ago  the  students  of  several  colleges  were  examined  on  the  Scrip- 
ture references  in  Tennyson's  Poems.  That  examination  proved 
a  lamentable  ignorance  in  high  places.  It  proved  that  35  per 
cent,  were  ignorant  of  the  'daily  manna,'  and  the  'crown  of 
thorns' ;  that  33  per  cent,  had  never  heard  of  the  'smitten  rock,' 
of  the  'ladder  of  Jacob';  that  50  per  cent,  could  tell  nothing  of 
the  'mark  of  Cain,'  or  of  Esau,  of  Euth,  or  the  Angel  of  the 
Tomb ;  a  whole  75  per  cent,  failed  to  understand  a  reference  to 
'St.  Peter's  sheet.' " 

"From  the  above  statistics  it  seems  not  too  much  also  to 
infer:  (1)  That  there  is  next  to  nothing  of  pedagogic  value,  the 
knowledge  of  which  is  safe  to  assume  at  the  outset  of  school-life," 
says  Professor  Hill,  "hence  the  need  of  objects  and  the  danger 
of  books  and  word-cram.  Hence  many  of  the  best  primary 
teachers  in  Germany  spend  from  two  to  four,  or  even  six  months 
in  talking  of  objects  and  drawing  them  before  any  beginning  of 
what  we  till  lately  have  regarded  as  primary  school  work.  (2) 
The  best  preparation  parents  can  give  their  children  for  good 
school  training  is  to  make  them  acquainted  with  natural  objects, 
especially  with  the  sights  and  sounds  of  the  country,  and  to  send 
them  to  good  and  hygienic,  as  distinct  from  the  most  fashionable, 
kindergartens.  (3)  Every  teacher,  on  starting  with  a  new  class 
or  in  a  new  locality,  to  make  sure  that  his  efforts  along  some 
lines  are  not  utterly  lost,  should  undertake  to  explore  carefully, 
section  by  section,  children's  minds  with  all  the  tact  and  in- 
genuity he  can  command  and  acquire,  to  determine  exactly  what 
is  already  known ;  and  every  normal  school  pupil  should  under- 
take work  of  the  same  kind  as  an  essential  part  of  his  training. 
(4)   The  concepts  that  are  most  common  in  the  children  of  a 


228  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

given  locality  arc  the  earliest  to  be  acquired,  while  the  rarer  ones 
are  later.  This  order  may  in  teaching  generally  be  assumed  as 
a  natural  one,  e.g.,  apples  first  and  wheat  last.  This  order, 
however,  varies  very  greatly  with  every  change  of  environment, 
so  that  the  results  of  exploration  of  children's  minds  in  one  place 
cannot  be  assumed  to  be  valid  for  those  of  another,  save  within 
comparatively  fc^w  concept-spheres." 

Words  as  Vehicles  of  Thought. 

Gregory  says:  "Language  is  the  vehicle  of  thought,  but  it 
does  not  convey  thought  as  a  wagon  carries  goods.  It  conveys 
them  rather  as  wires  do  telegrams,  signals  to  the  receiving 
operator.  Words  bring  ideas,  and  if  the  ideas  be  incompre- 
hensible, owing  to  lack  of  previous  knowledge,  want  of  "^an  apper- 
ceptive basis,'  then  words,  as  such,  are  futile.  Words  are  loved 
or  hated  for  the  ideas  that  they  suggest.  Words  are  loaded 
with  false,  spurious  meanings,  social  colorings,  untrue  concep- 
tions due  to  circumstances  or  surroundings  of  usage  with  which 
they  were  the  first  time  connected.  Words,  rightly  used,  are 
clue-lines,  signs  of  real  thought  and  intelligence.  Words  belong 
in  certain  groups  or  families,  and  are  better  learned  and  used, 
if  so  systematized  and  grouped  by  the  teacher  and  pupil.  j\ruch 
of  our  conversation  and  teaching  is  padded  with  unnecessary, 
meaningless,  useless  words.  There  is  a  skill  in  being  concise 
and  to  the  point.  It  is  not  the  mark  of  intelligence  to  become 
verbose  in  an  outpouring  flood  of  words,  often  to  no  purpose  and 
no  end." 

Drawbridge  adds:  "Every  wise  teaclier  knows  well  enough 
that  mere  words,  whctlier  learned  from  the  Bible  or  from  the 
Catechism,  are  mere  words.  Ideas  are  dilTerent  things  alto- 
gether. Words  have  no  value  whatever  apart  from  ideas.  If 
words  mean  nothing  to  the  child,  they  arc  worth  nothing  to  him. 
It  is  of  course  obvious  to  anyone  wlio  knows  anything  about  the 
subject  that  all  Catechisms,  as  they  are  often  taught,  are  almost 
wholly  useless  to  the  child.  But  when  such  is  the  case,  the 
fault  is  not  in  the  Catechisms,  nor  in  the  children,  but  in  the 
teacher.  Words  are  counters,  which  are  useful  only  in  so  far 
as  they  represent  ideas.  A  word  is  not  an  idea.  ©cos  is  no 
more  than  a  word  to  those  who  do  not  know  Greek,  and  it  needs 


"THE   POINT  OF  rONTACT"   JN  TKACIIINCJ  22!) 

more  than  a  knowledge  of  Creek  in  order  to  understand  tlie 
idea  of  'God,'  wliich  the  word  Tlicos  is  intended  to  convey. 
Words  are  words.  Ideas  are  ideas.  To  teach  a  word  is  one 
thing.     To  teach  an  idea  is  quite  another  thing. 

"What  is  true  of  one  word,  is  no  less  true  of  a  collection  of 
words.  A  string  of  words  is  not  the  same  thing  as  a  series  of 
thoughts.  To  he  able  to  repeat  all  the  words  of  the  Catechism 
is  not  necessarily  to  understand  a  single  one  of  the  ideas  which 
it  is  intended  to  convey.  To  teach  words  is  quite  a  different 
thing  from  imparting  ideas. 

"A  book  (which  is  made  up  of  words)  is  of  no  use  to  anyone, 
unless  the  words  of  which  it  is  composed  become  thoughts  by 
means  of  the  process  of  intelligent  study.  If  I  buy  a  book,  and 
keep  it  by  me,  I  have  acquired  no  new  ideas,  unless  T  read  the 
book.  I  may  have  a  vast  library,  but  its  contents  remain  mere 
words,  unless  I  enrich  my  soul  with  thoughts  by  means  of  study. 

"Hence  the  absurdity  of  teaching  words  without  ideas. 
Words  are  like  paper  money;  their  value  depends  on  w'hat  they 
stand  for.  As  you  would  be  none  the  richer  for  possessing  Con- 
federate money  to  the  amount  of  a  million  dollars,  so  your 
pupils  would  be  none  the  wiser  for  being  able  to  repeat  book 
after  book  by  heart  unless  the  words  were  the  signs  of  ideas  in 
their  minds.  Words  without  ideas  are  an  irredeemable  paper 
currency. 

"It  is  the  practical  recognition  of  the  truth  that  the  blind 
use  of  words  is  the  fuiulamcntal  error  that  has  revolutionized 
the  best  schools  of  the  country  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century. 
Pestalozzi  well  called  the  blind  use  of  words  in  matters  of  in- 
struction, the  'fundamental  error.'  He  was  not  the  first  educa- 
tional reformer  who  insisted  on  it.  Montaigne,  Comenius, 
Locke,  Eousseau,  had  all  insisted  on  the  same  idea,  but  they  were 
in  advance  of  their  time;  the  world  was  not  ready  to  listen  to 
them.  But  in  1806,  after  Prussia  was  thoroughly  beaten  by 
Napoleon  at  the  battle  of  Jena ;  when  her  capital  city  was  in  the 
hands  of  her  conqueror,  and  she  lay  humiliated  at  his  feet,  it 
occurred  to  some  of  her  leading  men  that  the  regeneration  of  the 
nation  was  to  be  sought  in  education.  In  this  way  it  happened 
that  the  ideas  of  Pestalozzi  were  embodied  in  the  schools  of 


230  RELIGIOUS   TEACHING 

Germany,  whence  they  have  gone  into  the  schools  of  every  civil- 
ized country  in  the  world." 

In  The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching,  Gregory  says :  "Words 
are  not  the  only  medium  through  which  mind  speaks  to  mind. 
The  thinker  has  a  hundred  ways  to  express  his  thoughts.  The 
eye  talks  with  a  varied  eloquence ;  and  the  skilled  orator  finds  in 
lip  and  brow,  in  head  and  hand,  in  the  shrugging  shoulder  and 
the  stamping  foot,  organs  for  most  intelligible  speech.  The  ges- 
tures of  John  B.  Gough  often  told  more  than  the  clearest  sen- 
tences of  other  speakers.  A  German  described  him  as  'the  man 
what  talks  mit  his  coat-tails,'  referring  to  some  illustration  in 
which  the  facile  orator  had  made  a  flirt  of  his  coat-tails  to  tell 
the  idea  he  wished  to  express.  Among  savage  people  whose 
language  is  too  meagre  to  meet  the  native  needs  of  their  minds, 
symbolic  action  supplies  the  lack  of  words.  There  is  also  speech 
in  pictures.  From  the  rudest  chalk  sketch  on  the  blackboard 
to  the  highest  work  of  the  painter's  art,  no  teaching  is  more  swift 
and  impressive  than  that  of  pictorial  representation.  The  eye 
gathers  here  at  a  glance  more  than  the  ear  could  learn  from  an 
hour  of  verbal  description. 

"The  misuse  of  language  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  common 
failures  in  teaching.  Not  to  mention  those  pretended  teachers 
who  cover  up  their  own  ignorance  or  indolence  with  a  cloud  of 
verbiage  which  they  know  the  children  will  not  understand,  and 
omitting  also  those  who  are  more  anxious  to  exhibit  their  own 
wisdom  than  to  convey  knowledge  to  others,  we  find  still  some 
honest  teachers  who  labor  hard  to  make  the  lesson  clear,  and 
then  feel  that  their  duty  is  done.  If  the  children  do  not  under- 
stand, it  must  be  from  hopeless  stupidity  or  from  wilful  inat- 
tention. They  do  not  suspect  that  they  have  used  words  which 
have  no  meaning  to  the  class  or  to  which  the  children  give  a 
meaning  differing  from  the  teacher's.  I  once  heard  a  legislator, 
who  was  also  a  preacher,  in  addressing  the  pupils  of  a  reform 
school  on  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  ask  the  question: 
*Boys,  are  you  of  the  opinion  that  the  customary  aliments  of 
swine  are  adapted  to  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  genus  homo?' 
An  interrogative  grunt  was  the  only  reply." 
The  Child's  Vocabulary. 

Regarding  the  above,  Haslett  states:    "The  child  of  poor 


"THE  roiNT  OF  CONTACT"  IN  TEACHING  231 

parents  inulerstaiuls  fewer  words  but  more  actions,  while  the 
cliikl  of  wealthy  parents  understands  more  words  but  fewer 
actions.  The  inllucnce  of  the  environment  causes  the  varia- 
tions. During  the  early  childhood  stage,  children  are  more  in- 
terested in  the  names  and  general  form  of  things.  In  the  next 
stage,  the  nature,  the  make-up  of  things  and  their  uses  become 
central.  Xouns  form  si.xty  per  cent,  of  a  child's  vocabulary; 
verbs  twenty  per  cent.,  adjectives  nine,  adverbs  five,  and  pro- 
nouns two  per  cent. 

"The  vocabulary  of  a  child  two  years  old  was  263  words; 
another  child  twenty-eight  months  old  used  677  words;  another 
thirty  months  old  made  use  of  327  words.  A  child  thirty-two 
months  old  had  042  words  in  his  vocabulary  and  when  five  and 
one-half  years  old  there  were  1,500  words  that  he  used,  exclusive 
of  participles  and  inflected  forms.  A  child  seven  years  of  age 
uses  probably  2,500,  and  one  eight  to  ten  years  old  uses  on  the 
average  3,000  to  4,000  words,  judging  from  the  reading.  The 
English  Bible  contains  about  7,000  words  exclusive  of  proper 
names.  Robinson  Crusoe,  a  book  so  much  read  by  children  from 
ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  has  nearly  6,000  words.  Thus  it 
would  appear  that  a  child's  vocabulary  is  rich.  Nouns  and 
verbs  being  in  the  majority,  suggests  much  as  to  the  character 
of  stories  suitable  for  this  stage  and  the  nature  of  the  instruc- 
tion." 

Henry  Clay  Trumbull  tells  of  an  intelligent  Sunday  School 
teacher  who  proceeded  on  the  assumption  that  the  members  of 
the  class  understood  the  meaning  of  the  "passion"  as  applied 
to  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  whose  method  of  teaching  was 
revolutionized  by  the  discovery  that  they  had  no  conception  of 
the  word.  The  teacher  should  study  the  vocabulary  of  his  stu- 
dent. This  may  be  done  by  inducing  the  student  to  express 
himself  and  carefully  observing  his  choice  of  words.  It  has 
been  said  that  of  the  one  hundred  thousand  words  in  the  English 
language,  few  men  understand  more  than  twenty  thousand,  and 
the  vocabulary  of  a  child  of  ten  rarely  contains  more  than  fifteen 
hundred.  The  folly  of  taking  for  granted  that  the  student  un- 
derstands the  language  of  the  lesson  at  every  point,  therefore,  is 
very  apparent. 

Referring  to  Professor  Adams'  PHniEu,  he  says:  "New  and 


232  ItKLlGlOlS  EDUCATION 

difficult  words  are  recognized  as  stumbling-blocks,  and  are 
usually  carefully  explained.  But  the  real  difficulty  of  coniniuni- 
cation  arises,  not  so  much  from  hard  words  as  from  every-day, 
commonplace  words  that  children  are  supposed  to  know  per- 
fectly. The  oflices  that  our  fjord  executes  as  our  Eedeemer  are 
described  as  those  of  prophet,  priest,  and  king.  In  dealing  with 
these,  many  teachers  would  agree  willi  one  who  began  his  ex- 
planation lliiis:  'All  know  wliat  a  king  is,  so  I  needn't  trouble 
you  witli  that,  but  priest  is  harder  to  understand,  while  the 
big  word  prophet  is  the  hardest  of  all.'  As  a  matter  of  experi- 
ence, a  set  of  careful  examinations  of  children  of  various  ages 
brought  out  the  fact  that  of  the  three  words,  king  was  the  most 
troublesome  and  prophet  the  easiest.  This  comes  about  because 
children  have  no  ideas  about  prophet  except  those  they  learned  in 
connection  with  sacred  things.  About  king,  on  the  contrary, 
they  have  all  sorts  of  popular  notions,  from  the  rubicund,  jolly 
monarch  of  the  fairy  tale  up  to  the  latest  picture  of  the  reign- 
ing sovereign.  Indeed,  in  tlie  case  of  young  children,  we  have 
here  an  excellent  example  of  the  arrest  of  contrary  ideas.  ^lany 
of  them  found  it  impossible  to  think  of  our  l^ord  as  at  once 
prophet,  priest,  and  king.  As  king.  He  was  pictured  as  a  grand 
man  with  a  crimson  cloak  and  a  gold  crown;  as  priest.  He  ap- 
peared as  an  emaciated,  pale-faced  man  with  a  long  black  coat 
and  a  soft  hat ;  as  prophet  He  rose  before  their  minds  as  an  aged 
man  with  a  long  staiT,  a  loose  gown,  and  an  uncovered  head. 
Naturally  these  pictures  could  not  be  fused,  nor  could  they  be 
placed  side  by  side  so  as  to  form  a  composite,  since  there  is  but 
one  Kedeemer.  They  were  contrary  ideas,  and  therefore  arrested 
each  other.  Tliought  became  impossible.  What  the  teacher 
must  do  under  such  circumstances  is  to  separate  in  each  case  that 
quality  that  is  essential  to  his  purpose,  and  show  that  this  quality 
is  not  inconsistent  with  the  other  qualities  similarly  separated. 
It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  seek  to  explain  every  difficult  word 
as  you  use  it.  This  leads  to  a  sort  of  running  translation,  which 
cannot  fail  to  be  irksome  and  confusing.  Thus  in  dealing  with 
the  Tenth  Commandment  we  should  carefully  explain  the  mean- 
ing of  covet  and  neighbor  (and  even  envy,  though  that  word  does 
not  occur  in  the  text  at  all)  because  each  of  these  nuiy  be  mis- 
iindei'slood.     But  we  do  not  require  to  ex])lain  the  exact  mean- 


••■j'lii:  roiXT  or  coni'ac  t"  in  ti:a(  iiixc  -i-.'/a 

\ng  of  ox,  or  ass,  or  niaiiscrvaiil.  This  brings  up  an  iin])oi'laiit 
disliuctioii  between  a  word  not  understood,  and  a  word  misunder- 
ptood.  If  the  pupil  does  not  understand  an  expression,  no  great 
harm  is  done." 

How  to  Graft  the  Unknown  to  the  Known. 

In  leehnical  language  this  is  the  Aitpcrcapl'wn,  already  re- 
ferred to.  It  is  not  always  easy  for  the  tcaehcr,  knowing  so  little 
of  what  the  ehild's  mind  really  has  exijei'ieneed,  to  find  the  point 
of  contact  at  once.  One  needs  quick  thonght,  keen  observation, 
rapid  adaptability  to  sudden  unfoldings  of  contact-points  in 
order  to  adjust  knowledge  to  the  child's  capacities.  The  story 
Dii  Bois  gives  from  Miss  Harrison's  experience  strikes  at  the 
right  method.  Practically,  it  is  pu.tting  yourself  as  far  as  may 
be  on  the  child's  plane,  and  endeavoring  to  picture  to  your  own 
mind  what  he  knows,  what  ho  likes,  where  his  interest  and 
curiosity  will  lie.  We  may  often  "^'miss  the  point,  and  even  fall 
below  the  child's  level,"  but  we  shall  soon  find  that  out. 

We  can  take  it  for  granted  that  besides  certain  facts  and 
words,  as  mentioned  above,  there  arc  various  fields  and  phases 
altogether  out  of  the  small  child's  vision.  History  as  such,  that 
is,  chronology,  he  kens  not,  because  he  has  had  too  few  years  of 
experience  to  grasp  it.  So  also  time  and  space  relations.  So 
also  naturally  all  abstract  reasoning,  for  he  lives  as  yet  men- 
tally in  the  concrete.  His  notions  of  God  and  Heaven  will  be 
wholly  anthropomorphic  {i.e.,  he  will  think  of  God  as  a  man, 
etc.)  ;  and  he  will  deify  his  toys,  dolls,  even  stones,  etc.,  as 
fetishes,  for  his  young  mind  is  symbolic. 

And  so  all  our  abstract  teaching  at  an  {»arly  age  entirely 
misses  the  point,  and  too  often  far  worse,  for  it  does  positive 
mischief.  What  do  hymns  of  heavenly  longing  mean  to  a  child 
who  knows  naught  of  death,  and  who  is  brimming  over  wath  life? 
Arguments  and  proofs  are  dangerous  to  a  child-mind  that  has 
not  yet  reached  the  period  of  doubting.  All  Bible  Stories  for 
the  early  years  are  a  point  of  contact,  for  the  child  is  interested 
in  stories,  the  concrete.  It  does  not  make  one  whit  of  difference 
whether  they  come  in  chronological  order.  Each  story  is  a  piece 
of  mosaic,  cut  and  carved,  ready  to  be  lifted  into  the  proper 
place  in  the  great  pattern  of  history.     The  aim  is  to  fit  the 


234  HELIOrOUS  EDUCATION 

unknown  to  the  known  without  gaps,  by  easy,  gliding  steps  as 
it  were. 

Pain  and  suHciing,  agony,  killings,  and  horrors,  too,  arc 
foreign  to  the  child-mind.  He  may  delight  in  them,  because  he 
loves  actions,  such  are  they  full  of;  and  we  grant  that  he  never 
appreciates  the  horror  and  enormity  of  them,  but  neither  does 
he  comprehend  them.  Also  details  of  things,  too  minute  and 
multiplied,  are  not  point  of  contact  methods. 

Wholes  are  better,  for  discrimination  and  reflection  have 
not  proceeded  far  enough  to  grasp  details  to  any  profound  ex- 
tent. Put  yourself  in  your  pupil's  place.  The  danger  lies  in 
the  material  rather  than  in  the  words  we  select,  for  we  are  apt 
to  be  cautious  on  this  line.  The  same  lesson  for  all  these  grades 
is  the  fruitful  cause  of  this  error.  Give  subjects  suited  to  the 
age  you  teach.  It  is  said  that  of  every  thousand  children,  two 
hundred  die  before  they  reach  nine  years  of  age.  Is  it  not  im- 
portant that  the  best  and  most  truly  comprehended  truths  be 
imparted  before  that  age  arrives?  The  child  was  not  made  for 
lessons,  but  lessons  for  the  child. 

Rules  to  Find  the  Point  of  Contact.     (From  Du  Bois.) 

1.  Study  constantly  and  carefully  the  pupils'  language  to 
learn  what  words  he  uses  and  the  meanings  he  gives  them. 

2.  Secure  from  him  as  full  a  statement  as  possible  of  his 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  to  learn  both  his  ideas  and  his  mode 
of  expressing  them,  and  to  help  him  to  correct  his  language. 

3.  Express  your  thoughts  as  far  as  possible  in  the  pupil's 
words,  carefully  correcting  any  defect  in  the  meaning  he  gives 
them. 

4.  Use  the  simplest  and  fewest  words  that  will  express  the 
idea.  Unnecessary  words  add  to  the  child's  work  and  increase 
the  danger  of  misunderstanding. 

5.  Use  short  sentences,  and  of  the  simplest  construction. 
Long  sentences  tire  the  attention,  while  short  ones  both  stimu- 
late and  rest  the  mind.  At  each  step  the  foot  rests  firmly  on 
the  ground. 

6.  If  the  pupil  evidently  fails  to  understand  the  thought, 
repeat  it  in  other  language,  and  if  possible,  with  greater  sim- 
])licity. 


-THE  POINT  OF  CONTACT"  IN  TEACHING       2:{5 

7.  Help  out  the  meaning  of  the  words  by  all  available 
illustrations;  preferring  pictures  and  natural  objects  for  young 
children. 

8.  When  it  is  lUTH'ssary  to  teach  a  new  word,  give  the  idea 
before  the  word.     This  is  the  order  of  nature. 

9.  Seek  to  increase  the  pupil's  stock  of  words  both  in  num- 
ber and  in  the  clearness  and  extent  of  meaning.  All  true  en- 
largement of  a  child's  language  is  increase  of  his  knowledge  and 
of  his  capacity  for  knowing. 

10.  As  the  acquisition  of  language  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant objects  of  education,  be  not  content  to  have  the  pupils 
listen  in  silence,  however  attentive  they  may  seem.  That  teacher 
is  succeeding  best  whose  pupils  talk  most  freely  upon  the  les- 
sons. 

11.  Here,  as  everywhere  in  teaching  the  young,  make  haste 
slowly.  Let  each  word  be  brought  into  use  before  it  is  displaced 
by  too  many  others. 

12.  Test  frequently  the  pupil's  sense  of  the  words  he  uses, 
to  make  sure  that  he  attaches  no  false  meaning,  and  that  he 
vividly  conceives  the  true  meaning. 

Burbank's  Protest. 

"I  want  to  lay  stress  upon  the  absurdity,  not  to  call  it  by  a 
harsher  term,  of  running  children  through  the  same  mill  in  a 
lot,  with  absolutely  no  real  reference  to  their  individuality.  No 
two  children  are  alike.  You  cannot  expect  them  to  develop  alike. 
They  are  different  in  temperament,  in  tastes,  in  disposition,  in 
capabilities." 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  Mention  a  number  of  things  that  cannot  possibly  enter  the  young 

child's  world  at  first. 

2.  Give  many  illustrations  of  your  own  to  show  that  "that  which  is 

first  in  cause  may  be  last  in  discovery" — and  try  to  discover  the 
principles  you  are  illustrating. 

3.  What   must  you  know   about  a   child's   mind   to   hit   the   point   of 

contact?    How  are  you  to  gain  this  necessary  knowledge? 

4.  Distinguish  carefully  and  clearly  between  "concrete"  and  "abstract" 

in  language.    Did  Jesus  use  the  concrete  where  we  should  have 
been  tempted  to  use  the  abstract? 

5.  Name   twenty-five   words   that  you   know   your   children   could   not 

possibly   comprehend,    and   yet    are    familiar    names   of    common 
objects  to  you. 


PART  V. 

The  Curriculum 

The    \Vh(jt  of  Teachinf 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

CURRICULUM— GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL. 

SUGGESTED  HEADINGS. 

Churchman's  Mantai..     Butler.     97-103. 

Repokt  of  the  Joint  Com.mi.ssion  on  Sdnday  Schools. 

The  Sr.NDAY  School  I'koiu.em  Solved.     Smith. 

Principles  of  Religious  Education,     pp.  105-126. 

Teacher  Training.     Road.'i. 

Pedagogical  Rible  School.     Haslett.     pp.  207-348. 

Cl'KRICUI.UM.       IlodlJCX. 

What  is  a  Graded  School? 

In  the  Appendix  to  the  Report  of  The  Joint  Commission 
of  the  General  Convention  on  Sunday  School  Instruction,  pub- 
lished October,  1907,  the  Commission  says:  "The  term,  'a 
graded  school,'  has  proved  in  practice  to  be  a  somewhat  loose 
designation.  Sometimes  a  school  is  called  'graded'  when  the 
same  uniform  lesson  is  used  all  through  the  school  (except  per- 
haps the  primary),  only  that  the  school  is  organized  in  certain 
groups,  as  a  'main  school,'  'Bible  classes'  or  'senior  school,'  etc. 
The  grading  in  this  case  is  not  at  all  in  the  lessons,  but  only  in 
the  grouping  of  pupils. 

"Again,  a  school  is  called  'graded'  when  each  of  tlie  various 
groups  or  departments  studies  the  same  topic  or  lesson  at  the 
same  time,  though  in  forms  modified  to  suit  the  various  ages. 
Here  there  is  grading  both  in  school  grouping  and  in  lesson 
form. 

"Still  again,  a  school  may  have  an  order  of  studies,  by  which 
certain  topics  are  gone  over  in  certain  departments  or  at  certain 
ages.  It  may  happen  that  no  two  classes  are  working  on  the 
same  subject  or  lesson  at  any  one  time,  yet  each  class  is  follow- 
ing out  the  scheme  of  study  for  the  school.  This  is  the  most 
complete  form  of  grading,  generally  designated  as  a  'subject- 
graded'  scheme. 


240  RKLKJIOUS  EDUCATION 

"The  first  mentioned  school  is  not  generally  graded  at  all. 
It  is  merely  grouped.  (Jrading  applies  properly  to  lessons  rather 
than  to  organization.  The  second  school  may  be  justly  called 
a  graded  scliool,  l)ut  it  is  not  really  'subject-graded.' 

"There  is  little  question  but  what  the  attempt  to  modify  the 
same  lesson  topic  in  such  ways  as  to  ada])t  it  to  various  grades 
at  once  will  ultimately  be  surrendered  in  favor  of  a  real  subject- 
graded  ])lan.  There  are  fundamental  difl'erences  in  the  method 
of  study  suitable  to  various  ages  which  render  it  undesirable  to 
keep  all  de])artinents  of  the  school  on  the  same  topic  and  pro- 
ceeding at  the  same  ])ace.  Moreover,  in  other  than  Biblical  ma- 
terial, such  a  uniform  plan  is  impossible.  Even  the  attempt  to 
accomplish  it  in  Biblical  material  tends  to  make  it  impossible 
to  treat  other  material  in  any  adequate  or  pedagogical  way. 

"A  school  should  l)e  graded  in  accordance  with  tjie  recog- 
nized laws  of  child  development.  There  are  well-marked  periods 
in  child-life.  The  earliest  runs  until  about  seven  years.  The 
second  is  from  seven  to  nine  or  ten,  roughly  speaking.  The 
third  runs  from  nine  or  ten  to  about  thirteen.  The  fourth  cov- 
ers approximately  the  ages  of  thirteen  to  seventeen.  It  is  con- 
venient to  have  the  school  divided  into  departments  according 
to  these  periods,  and  especially  desirable  where  there  is  facility 
for  using  separate  rooms  or  buildings. 

"But  actual  separation  of  pupils  is  not  so  important  as  a 
differentiation  in  the  lesson  material  and  the  way  of  handling 
it.  In  the  beginners'  and  primary  grades  large  groups  of  chil- 
dren may  be  handled  by  a  single  teacher.  Even  in  the  next  or 
third  period  classes  may  be  reasonably  large,  provided  the  teacher 
is  competent.  Nor  is  it  absolutely  necessary  in  this  period  to 
separate  the  sexes,  though  perhaps  desirable.  The  fourth  period 
should  see  smaller  classes,  separated  by  sexes,  and  taught, 
preferably,  by  teachers  of  their  own  sex. 

"In  beginners'  and  primary  grades  the  children  will  not  be 
expected  to  do  much,  if  any,  home  work.  The  principles  of  the 
kindergarten,  though  not  necessarily  its  actual  method,  Avill  per- 
tain. The  years  from  eight  to  ten  will  be  diligently  used  for 
appropriate  memory  work.  It  will  not  usually  be  practicable 
to  expect  much  writing  before  the  third  period,  or  to  get  map 
work  done,  but  both  can  be  commenced  at  about  ten  years.     Yet 


(  I  i;i;i(  riJ M    (;i;.\i)iN(;  'riir;  s^^■|)A^'  sciiooi.       -iw 

pi'i'vious  to  lliis.  iiolc-l)()ok  work  with  pictures  and  other  il]ii>- 
l rated  t'l'iilurcs  can  he  ac(;onij)lishe(l. 

"Bio<i"rai)hiea]  work,  usual ly  begun  in  later  primary  years, 
will  1)0  eontinued  into  liistory  in  the  succeeding  periods.  The 
teaching  of  the  ('al(Hhisni  conies  best  at  ten  or  eleven  years,  but 
tlie  Christian  Year,  if  taught  objectively,  may  precede  this. 
The  Prayer  Book  must  be  taught  in  exceedingly  simple  fashion 
if  it  is  undertaken  before  the  age  of  twelve.  The  ages  of  thir- 
teen to  fourteen  or  fifteen  should  not  fail  of  some  direct  ethical 
instruction,  nor  of  a  clear  and  forceful  presentation  of  the  life 
of  our  Lord.  Both  of  these  subjects  should  be  mastered  by  the 
pupil  as  a  background  for  the  confirmation  decision." 

(Jrading  is  pedagogically  recognizing  Child-Psychology,  i.e., 
child-development.  Good  Grading  must,  therefore,  plan  (1)  to 
adapt  the  Topical  Subject-matter  or  material  to  the  right  age; 
(2)  to  meet  the  particular  moral,  practical,  and  mental  Bequire- 
ments  of  each  period  of  development;  (3)  to  supply  All  the  Be- 
ligious  Instruction  Material,  Collateral,  Correlated  Subjects,  etc., 
consistent  with  the  broadest  possible  religious  Education,  giving 
due  regard  to  and  practical  coo])cration  witli  the  Public  School 
Work  of  the  children.  It  supplements,  not  supplants,  the  Day 
School.  (4)  It  will,  of  course,  in  doing  this,  adjust  questions  to 
the  comprehension  of  the  children.  It  will  be  adjustment,  not 
in  the  same  material,  but  differing  material,  suited  to  each  age. 
In  all  Schools,  this  grading  should  be  done  by  a  specially  quali- 
fied teacher.  It  will  seidom  be  the  Superintendent,  who  is 
qualified  in  ]\ranagement,  not  Education.  It  may  be  one  of  the 
regular  class  teachers  or  a  Special  Grading  Officer. 

What  Grading  is  Not. 

There  is  a  widespread  conception  of  grading  that  differs 
totally  from  what  is  intended  by  the  use  of  the  term  in  this  chap- 
ter. We  refer  to  the  idea  that  all  grading  involves  adaptation 
of  qnestions  to  the  varied  ages  of  the  children  and  of  simplicity 
and  quantity  of  material  in  their  diverse  capacities.  This  is  a 
part  of  Grading;  but  is  not  grading. 

Dr.  Eoads  brightly  adds  certain  other  things  that  Grading 
is  not.  (a)  We  cannot  grade  on  strictly  intellectual  Knowledge 
of  the  Bible,  on  account  of  general  ignorance,  varvinsr  among  all 


242  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

ages,  (h)  Nor  can  we  use  Public  Scliool  Grades.  It  has  not 
worked  well ;  though  in  the  main  it  would  do  so  theoretically,  if 
all  Public  School  CJrading  were  consistent.  It  is  better  than 
the  former  plan,  and  will  in  time  agree  with  mental  development 
better  than  it  frequently  does  now.  (c)  Nor  again  can  we  follow 
Age  absolutely,  since  it  is  too  mechanical. 

Neither  will  the  diminution  of  the  amount  of  instruction 
on  a  given  subject  meet  the  requirements  of  the  case.  Here,  too, 
the  adaptation  must  be  in  quality  as  well  as  in  quantity. 

White  says  that  forty  years  ago  elementary  text  books  in  the 
schools  were  prepared  "on  the  basis  of  the  theory  that  primary 
pupils  may  be  taught  the  same  kind  of  knowledge  as  the  pupils 
in  the  higher  grades,  and  by  essentially  the  same  methods,  the 
only  radical  difference  between  the  primary  and  advanced  in- 
struction being  in  the  amount  of  the  knowledge  taught,  the 
former  covering  daily  less  ground  than  the  latter.  The  only 
essential  difference  between  the  elementary  and  higher  books  in 
all  branches  was  the  fact  that  the  former  were  thinner  than  the 
latter. 

Practical  Grading. 

In  looking  at  the  studies  suggested  in  each  grade,  we  must 
first  evidently  allow  for  locality,  since  it  is  apparent  that  chil- 
dren in  some  schools  are  fully  one  year  in  general  behind  those 
of  other  schools  in  mental  ability.  This  is  due  sometimes  to 
race,  sometimes  to  locality,  as  between  city  and  country,  some- 
times to  the  condition  of  the  Day  Schools.  This,  of  course, 
affects  the  order  of  studies,  and  instead  of  a  child  being  able  to 
enter  the  Grammar  School  at  eight  or  nine,  it  does  not  come  in 
till  ten.  Thus  what  often  appears  to  be  a  dissimilar  topic  at  a 
certain  age  will  not  be,  if  we  stop  to  justly  regard  the  mind  of 
the  child.  So  a  year's  difference,  one  way  or  the  other,  is  not  of 
much  significance.  Again,  the  ages  for  certain  classes  of  facts 
are  not  all  definitely  established,  but  only  serve  approximately  as 
guides.  We  may  safely  infer  that  at  viost  not  more  than  two 
years'  difference  should  be  allowed  for  divergence  of  opinion  as 
to  the  position  of  the  main  topics  for  the  Grammar  School 
Grades. 

In  undertaking  to  grade  a  school,  it  must  be  remembered 


CURRICULUM— GRADING   THE    SUNDAY    SCHOOL         243 

that  the  Day  School  C  ratio  must  be  the  main  guide.  Make  a 
carefully  tabulated  list  on  paper  of  each  child,  with  address,  age, 
and  Day  School  Crade.  On  the  average,  it  will  be  found  that 
five  per  cent,  are  one  grade  ahead  of  their  age  and  five  per  cent, 
one  grade  behind.  That  is,  ninety  per  cent,  will  agree,  year 
with  grade.  In  the  slum  districts  of  a  city,  the  minimum  of  five 
per  cent,  deficients  will  mount  to  fifteen  per  cent,  or  even  more. 
In  cultured  districts,  the  progressives  will  rise  to  about  the  same 
proportion,  fifteen  per  cent.  Placing  the  grading  strictly  upon 
the  standing  in  Day  School  does  away  with  dissatisfaction,  grum- 
bling, and  open  rebellion.  The  "Grading  Teacher"  or  Superin- 
tendent is  relieved  of  seeming  arbitrariness,  for  he  has  no  option. 
The  child  recognizes  its  place  in  Day  School,  and  most  naturally 
falls  into  the  same  place  in  Sunday  School,  with  the  added  ad- 
vantage of  learning  to  place  the  Sunday  School  and  the  Day 
School  on  the  same  par  at  the  start.  In  large  schools,  each  grade 
is  a  year;  in  small  schools,  two  grades  combine  to  form  a  two-year 
cycle. 

We  must  accept  certain  things  as  essential  and  necessary, 
and  then  proceed  to  arrange  them  with  due  regard  to  the  child's 
mental  fitness  and  development.  In  suggesting  the  following 
order  of  studies,  we  are  in  agreement  absolutely  with  the  ma- 
jority of  the  foremost  educators  of  the  day. 

How  to  Grade  a  Small  School. 

It  is  a  very  simple  thing  to  grade  even  the  smallest  Country 
School  so  that  each  child  has  its  distinct  grade,  year  after  year, 
and  a  definite,  progressive,  well  mapped-out  subject-curriculum. 

If,  for  example,  we  say  that  there  are  to  be  eight  grades 
above  the  Primary,  i.e.,  running  from  eight  years  of  age  to 
eighteen,  we  can  give  any  nomenclature  we  wish  to  those  grades, 
the  hest  one  being  the  Public  School  names  for  those  corres- 
ponding ages  approximately.  The  School  is  too  small  for  six- 
teen classes,  eight  each  of  boys  and  girls.  Half  that  number 
would  be  all  it  could  possibly  stand,  perhaps  even  less. 

ISTow  manifestly  every  child,  no  matter  how  few  the  grades, 
lives  through  eight  years  in  passing  from  eight  to  eighteen. 
Again,  a  year  or  two  one  way  or  the  other  does  not  make  any 
essential  difference  in  the  choice  of  a  subject  to  be  taught.    Now, 


2U  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

if  we  take,  for  illusiralioi],  the  eight  grades  of  the  Commission 
Series  above  the  "Beginning  Eeading"  age,  number  them,  say,  I, 
II,  III,  etc.,  ujD  to  VIII,  we  can  arrange  them  this  way  for  a 
two-year  course,  each  year  having  but  four  grades  taught,  and 
the  cycle  completing  all  the  eight.  We  th(>n  put  the  two  years 
(or  two  grades)  of  children  together,  thus: 

AGES.  FIRST  YEAR.  SECOND  YEAR. 

8  and     9  Grade  I-: ——==— Grade  II. 

10  and  H  Grade  lIIr-"=^^^=— Grade  IV. 

12  and  13  Grade  V-!— '— "^^II,.^ Grade  VI. 

14  and  16  Grade  VIIr-===~-- — Grade  VIII. 

A  child  entering  the  Grammar  Scliool  at  eight  takes  Grade 
I.,  is  nine  the  next  year  and  takes  Grade  II.,  is  ten  the  next  year 
and  takes  Grade  III.,  is  eleven  the  next  year  and  takes  Grade  IV., 
etc.,  right  down  through  the  curriculum.  There  is  a  definite 
progression,  with  larger  classes,  fewer  teachers,  and  greater 
adaptability  to  the  small  school.  Thus  the  odd  grades  are  all 
running  the  first  year,  and  the  even  ones  all  the  second. 

An  esential  to  this  scheme  is  a  printed  folder  leaflet  that 
shows  the  sequence  and  biennial  arrangement,  so  that  teachers 
and   pupils  understandingly   enter  into   the   fulfilment   of   tlie 
course. 
The   Principles  of  a  Well-Rounded   Curriculum. 

The  child  is  a  unit.  His  physical  life  is  manifested  through 
his  emotions  (heart  or  feelings),  his  intellect  (head),  and  his 
will  (doing  or  acting).  No  education  is  complete  without  due 
provision  for  the  training  of  each  of  these  in  proper  proportion, 
and  with  consistent  correlation  with  the  so-called  secular  or  Day 
School  studies.  As  President  Butler  says,  there  are  but  five  in- 
terrelated lines  of  education,  scientific,  literary,  political,  aes- 
thetic, and  religious. 

The  Old  Sunday  School  education  concerned  itself  mainly 
with  the  heart  side  under  which  emotions  were  aroused  only. 
The  new  education,  unless  carefully  watched,  will  turn  exclu- 
sively to  the  head  side,  and  neglect  the  heart.  Either  or  both  of 
these  phases  are  incomplete.  They  are  but  means  to  an  end. 
The  e?id  is  Character-building,  which  is  Habit-forming,  which  in 
the  ultimate  analysis  depends  solely  upon  will-training,  i.e.,  get- 
ting response  to  emotions,  ideals,  in  doing  and  living,  guided  in- 
telligently, step  by  step,  by  intellect.     Thus  in  a  well-rounded 


CURIULI  lA  .M     (;UA1)1M;    THE    SUNDAY    SClKJOL  -245 

Curriculum  we  must  in  each  grade,  even  in  each  lesson,  take 
account  of  (a)  the  Child's  Interests,  that  is  the  Instincts,  which 
are  our  only  material  to  train  into  Habits  (b)  Worship,  (c)  Mis- 
sions, which  train  his  heart  and  his  life  in  the  realm  of  Love; 
(d)  Memory  Work  (c)  the  Subject-matter  of  Instruction  (Cur- 
riculum), which  concerns  his  intellect;  (f)  Self-activity,  by 
which  he  learns  self-expression  in  doing;  and  finally  (g)  Chris- 
tian Work,  the  Society  to  which  he  will  belong  at  each  stage  of 
his  education,  through  which  he  will  practically  carry  out  the 
Teachings  of  Christ  in  Christian  Altruism  and  Service  to  his 
fellows  in  the  world. 

Some  Standard  Curricula. 

1.    THE  CUIHHCULUM  OF  THE  JOINT  COMMiSSIOX 
OF  THE  GENERAL  CONVENTION. 

I.  Pkimary  Department   (Embi-acing  the  Kindergarten  and 

ages  up  to  about  Eight.) 

Aim. — To  plant  in  the  heart  of  the  child  those  first  truths 
of  Christianity  which  underlie  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed,  and 
the  Ten  Commandments,  viz. :  God's  love,  care,  wisdom,  power — 
which  form  the  basis  for  inculcating  obedience  and  love,  and  in- 
spiring reverence  and  worship  in  the  child. 

Material. — Stories  from  the  Old  Testament  and  from  the 
'New  Testament ;  stories  from  Nature,  from  daily  life,  and  from 
the  mission  field. 

Mcmorij  ITor/,-. — Simple  poems;  selected  Bible  verses  and 
Hymns;  tlie  Lord's  Prayer;  the  23rd  Psalm;  simple  prayers; 
grace  at  meals,  and  proper  devotional  forms  for  home  use. 

II.  Junior  DErAKTMENT.    (Ages  9-13). 

Ai)n. — The  moral  education  of  the  child,  the  deepening  of 
his  sense  of  duty  to  others,  the  direction  of  his  social  relations 
and  activities,  and  the  estal)lishment  of  moral  and  religious 
habits. 

Material— T\\Q  Life  of  Christ  in  story;  the  Christian  Year; 
the  Catechism  (elementary)  ;  the  Prayer  Book;  Old  Testament 
stories  (as  in  the  preceding  department,  but  more  biographical 
in  form)  ;  elementary  study  of  the  Life  of  Christ;  missionary 
history  studied  in  its  great  characters.    These  subjects  should  be 


24G  RIOLTGIOUS  EDUCATION 

accompanied  by  the  self-activity  of  the  child  in  map  and  manual 
work. 

Spiritual  Life. — The  worship  of  the  Church;  the  adaptation 
of  offices  of  devotion  to  the  need  of  the  child ;  the  cultivation  of 
private  prayer  at  home  and  in  the  Church. 

Memory     WorJc. — Collects;     Canticles;     selected     Psalms, 
Hymns  and  passages  of  Scripture;  suitable  selections  from  other 
literature. 
II.    Middle  Department.    (Ages  13-16). 

Aim. — The  building  of  a  strong,  devout,  helpful  Christian 
character.  This  period  includes  the  years  in  which  the  largest 
percentage  come  to  confirmation  and  personal  religious  confes- 
sion, or,  on  the  other  hand,  take  the  fatal  steps  toward  evil. 
Emphasis  is  to  be  placed  on  the  personal  life,  the  realization  of 
the  principles  and  teachings  of  our  Lord,  His  authority  as  a 
teacher  and  an  example. 

Material. — Old  Testament  History  as  the  moral  develop- 
ment of  a  nation,  its  type  characters,  great  events,  crises;  a  more 
advanced  study  of  the  Life  of  Christ,  His  moral  and  spiritual 
teaching;  the  beginning  of  the  Church;  missionary  expansion; 
leaders  of  Christian  history;  Church  worship;  typical  forms  of 
Christian  and  social  service. 

Spiritual  Life. — Confirmation  and  the  Holy  Communion; 
private  and  public  worship ;  prayer  for  others,  for  the  world,  the 
Church,  diocese,  the  parish;  for  those  newly  confirmed,  the  un- 
confirmed ;  for  those  who  are  careless,  and  for  the  development 
of  personal  interest  in  others. 
IV.    Senior  DErARTMENT  (Ages  17-20). 

There  should  be  a  clear  distinction  between  the  regular  Sun- 
day School  course  and  the  studies  of  later  years. 

A  determining  point  analogous  to  graduation  should  be 
reached. 

This  period  presents  the  last  opportunity  most  will  have 
for  consecutive  study,  it  should  therefore  cover  such  subjects  as 
will  best  fit  the  pupil  for  his  future  as  a  Christian  and  a  Church- 
man. 

Aim. — The  determining  of  Christian  character;  moral  con- 
viction; comprehension  of  the  Divine  Origin  and  Mission  of  the 


CrKKK  ri.lM— (aiADINC     I'lIK    SUNDAY    SCIIOUI.  247 

Churcli;  responsibility  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  Clirist. 

Material. — The  Prayer  Book;  Christian  doctrine;  Church 
history;  Church  polity;  missionary  work;  the  Bible  studied  in 
sections,  by  periods,  by  books,  e.g.,  the  Psalter,  Messianic  prophe- 
cies, the  teaching  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  selected  Epistles. 

Spiritual  Life. — Enipliasis  upon  the  corporate  life  of  the 
Church;  common  worship,  fellowship,  and  service. 

V.    Post-Graduate  Department. 

(Either)  I.  Normal  Course. 

Aim. — The  preparation  of  persons  for  service  as  teachers. 

Material. — The  study  of  child-nuturc;  principles  and  meth- 
ods of  teaching.  Sunday  School  organization  and  administra- 
tion;  synthetic  study  of  the  Old  Testament;  the  Life  of  Christ; 
the  history  and  worship  of  the  Church. 

(or)  JT.    Elective  Courses. 

Aijn. — The  broadening  of  Christian  knowledge  in  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  home,  leading  to  deeper  interest  in  the  work  and 
worship  of  the  Church,  and  the  cultivation  of  home  and  family 
worship. 

Material. — Studies  in  Bible  history;  the  history  of  the 
Canon  of  Scripture;  Prayer  Book;  Liturgies;  the  social  service 
of  Christianity. 

IL  THE  OFFICIAL  CURRICULUM  OF  THE  SUNDAY 
SCHOOL  FEDERATION. 
As  adopted  after  Revision  and  Referendum  by  the  Majority 
of  Diocesan  Organizations  in  Membership  with  the  Federation. 
Published  by  Order  of  the  Executive  Committee.  Outline  of  the 
General  Curriculum  for  All  Graded  Schools  of  Any  Size. 

PRIMARY  DEPARTMENT. 

(Until  9  years  of  age.) 

Aim. — To  teach  God's  power,  wisdom,  love  and  care  for  His 
children  as  the  ground  for  inculcating  obedience  and  love,  and 
inspiring  reverence  and  worship,  as  centering  in  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Creed,  and  the  Ten  Commandments. 

Material. — Stories  from  nature  and  life.  The  Old  and  New 
Testament.    Mission  stories. 


2 IS  IIELIHKM'S  EDICATIOX 

Mcmorij  Work. — The  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Crecrl,  and  tlie  Ten 
Commandmentp.  Short  form  of  daily  prayer.  Selections  from 
the  Bihle,  Prayer  Book  and  Hymnal. 

JUNIOR  DEPARTMENT. 

(Ages  9-15.) 

Aim. — To  estahlish  right  liahits  along  spiritual,  moral  and 
social  lines,  inculcating  regard  for  law  and  personal  duties,  and 
to  develop  the  practice  of  private  prayer  and  public  worship. 

Material. — Catechism,  Church  Year,  and  Prayer  Book.  Bio- 
graphical Study  of  the  Old  Testament.  Biographical  Study  of 
the  Life  of  Christ.  Biograpliieal  Study  of  the  Apostolic  Church. 
Elements  of  Christian  Faith  and  Practice.  Exposition  of  the 
Church  Catechism  in  preparation  for  Confirmation. 

Memory  Work. — Catechism,  selections  from  the  Bible  and 
Prayer  Book. 

SENIOR  DEPARTMENT. 

(Ages  15-19.) 

Aim. — To  secure  definite  recognition  of  one's  Personal  Rela- 
tion  to  Christ  and  the  building  of  strong,  intelligent  Christian 
Character. 

Material. — Old  Testament  History,  Advanced  Study  of  tlie 
Life  of  Christ,  with  emphasis  on  the  Ethical  and  Religious 
Teachings  and  Messianic  Character  of  Jesus.  Advanced  Study 
of  the  Apostolic  Church.  Old  Testament  History.  History  and 
Use  of  the  Prayer  Book. 

GRADUATE  DEPART]\tENT. 

(19  and  upwards.) 
Electives. — Church  History,  English  and  American,  and 
Modern  Missions.  General,  Diocesan,  and  Parish  Church  Organi- 
zations and  Work.  Typical  forms  of  the  Christian  Social  Ser- 
vice. Study  of  Apostolic  Writings.  ]\raking  of  the  Bible. 
Christian  Ethics,  or  a  Teacher  Training  Course. 

III.     CURRICULUM  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  SUNDAY 
SCHOOL  COMMISSION. 

This  Curriculum  is  practically  the  Standard  to-day  as  an 
all-around  cni'riculum.     It  follows  the  same  subjects  as  the  offi- 


CURRICLIA  M— (JRADIXC    TIIK    SL'NDAV    SCllOOf.  iU) 

cial  curricula  ol'  ihc  Juiiil  C'uinuiissioii  and  oi'  the  Sunda}'  School 
Federation.  Jii  fact  it  was  the  norm  or  basis  from  which  these 
two  were  compiletl,  but  it  also  presents  in  tabular  form  certain 
other  essential  points  which  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  by 
every  teaclier  iu  the  education  of  the  child.  In  Chapter  XXIX, 
we  have  indicated  the  indebtedness  of  the  Modern  Forward  Move- 
ment in  tlu'  world  of  Religions  Education  to  the  New  York  .Sun- 
day School  Comnussion  in  general  and  to  the  Eev.  Pascal  nar- 
rower in  particular.  The  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  and  unrest 
was  in  the  air  everywhere  in  the  Sunday  Schools  of  all  religious 
bodies.  It  required  a  leader  however  to  voice  it:  to  "seize  the 
psychological  moment"  and  to  focus  and  direct  the  movement  of 
reaction.  Canon  Harrower  secured  the  appointment  of  the  New 
York  Commission,  and,  as  Chairnuin,  providentially  became  that 
leader.  The  Curriculum  evolved  by  that  Commission  was  a  grad- 
ual growth,  an  evolution,  unfolded  step  by  step  by  the  production 
of  a  Series  of  Lesson  ]\ranuals,  each  one  a  link  in  the  Curriculum. 
This  Curriculum  is  even  yet  not  complete,  further  details  and 
grades  in  contemplation  not  being  supplied  with  Manuals.  They 
will  be  inserted  as  the  growth  proceeds.  It  has  been  so  wisely 
and  so  pedagogically  planned  that  it  is  invariably  the  standard 
on  which  all  other  curricula,  general  and  olHcial,  or  local  and 
parochial,  are  based.  In  the  first  place  it  is  based  on  the  three- 
fold division,  the  importance  of  which  we  have  stressed  through- 
out the  entire  book  thus  far,  the  trinity  of  emotions,  intellect, 
and  will;  or  feeling,  thinking,  and  doing.  It  provides  for  the 
chief  interests  of  the  child  as  emotional  starting  points;  for  the 
aim  of  the  teacher  kept  constantly  before  her;  for  definite  mem- 
ory work  on  the  part  of  the  child;  for  special  means  of  self- 
expression  in  the  child's  own  activity;  for  Christian  living  in 
works  of  altruism;  for  the  worship  of  the  child  in  his  own 
spiritual  life,  and  for  the  study  of  missions  as  a  nuiinspring  of 
our  religion. 
The  Order  of  Studies. 

This  will  depend  on  («)  the  Subjects  considered  needful 
for  a  thorough  Keligious  Education;  (h)  the  size  and  character 
of  the  School,  considered  as  city  or  country,  bright  or  ignorant 
children,  possible  size  of  classes,  number  of  teachers,  etc.  Just 
as  the  country  Day  School  has  to  inadequately  cover  the  same 


250 


l{i':LlCIOUS  EDUCATION 


A  GRADED  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  SCHEME  ACCORDING  TO  THE 

COMPILED  BY  THE  REV.  WM.  WALTER  SMITH,  MA..  M.D.,  GENERAL  SECRETARY  OP 


1 

* 

s 

4 

s 

« 

T 

UEADB 

loe 

"i'T'TH.'In.l"' 

TI1BTE4CUBB 

CUBBICtH-tJH 

C01IBSB-TITL8 

''"^"iijr 

Kinder- 
garten 

11.' 
III. 
IV. 

2-6 

Doing.  Motion, 
Concrete.       Ooe- 
ueK.  Namea. 

To      develop      a 
kind.  lovhiK.  Joy- 
ous     child.       by 
teaching    of 
O  0  d  ■  a  p  o  w  er. 
wisdom,     love, 
and    care:    Incul 
eating  obedience, 
love,      reverence, 
worship,   as  cen- 
tering     in      tbe 
C  r  e  e  d,     I^rds 
Prayer,   and  Ten 
7-ommandments. 

Wonder      Stories 
of  Old  Test    and 
Life    of    Christ, 
.Nature.  Ood,  and 
Ills  Works. 

.Sew  two-year  8,  S.  Com- 
mission Course. 

Pictures,  half  and  ooe-cent 
(120  for  ID. 

•One      Year      of      Sunday 
School   Lessons  for  Young 
Children  (Palmer). 

Picture  Cards.  90c  per  100  . 
Penny  pictures.  12(5  tor  $1 

"Bible    Lessona    for    Little 
Iteglnners"   (Cusbman  Les- 
sons). 2  vols.    Above  Series 

Pictures,  120  for  »1.  Cra- 
gln-s  0.  T  4  N.  T.  Stories. 
Pictures  as  above. 

Primary 
III. 

6-9 

Others.     All 
t  b  1  Dga    leen. 
heard,  felt.     Col 
1  e  c  1 1  n  g.    Con 
Crete. 

To    educate    the 
Consclenie.    Obe- 
dience.   Love,    in 
addition    to    tbe 
above. 

Tbe  aame  Mate- 
rial.      Biograph- 
ical    after     Stb 
year. 

•Love.     Lite,     and     Light" 
IMabel  Wilson). 

Pictura  Cards.  SOc  per  too. 

Orammar 

Junior 

1. 

11. 

III. 

9-12 

Concrete.    C  o  1  ■ 
lectlng.        Group 
work.          Games. 
Heading,  Ge<.gra- 
pby.     Biography. 
HUtory.    Reality 
end  I'acta. 

To  estebllab  Per- 
sonal     Habits 
along  Moral  and 
Social   lines,  and 
Itecognltlon       of 
Law  and  Duty. 

Catechism     Telt 
Vi  year. 

Catechism  Illostrated  and 
Ciplalned. 

Step  Catecblam ;  Meaning 
of  Words  ;  Pictures.  The 
Catecblam,  Ward  or  Mc 
Pberson. 

Prayer    Book    H 
year 

Our  Book  of  Wor8bl(>. 

Tbe  Teacher's  Prayer  Book 
Pictures:  Smith's  History, 
etc. 

Church     Year 
(suplm'y) 

Story  of  tbe  Christian  Year. 

Patterson's  Cbsrt. 

o  1  d    Testament 
Stories. 

Old  Testament  Stories. Vol. 

I  .  Pts.  1  &  2. 

Old  Testament  Storles.Vo). 

II  .  Pts    1  A  2. 

S  8  C.  Uanuala  ;  Pictures  : 
Maps  :  Models. 

Ditto  above. 

Life  of  CbrlsL 

11)  Junior  Life  of  Christ. 
J'ta.  1  &  2. 

8.  B  C  Teacher's  Manual  : 
Hurlbut's  FQur  Gospels, 
stalker's  Life  of  Christ: 
Pictures.  Maps. 

Christian  Ethics 

(2)     Teachings    of    Jesus. 
Junior  Ethics.  Pts.  1  &  2. 

S    S.  C.  Mannal. 

Leaders 

Stories  of  Christian  Lead 
ers      Pts.  1  4  2. 

S.  8    C.  ManuaL 

Qraromar 
Senior 

Middle 

Inter- 
mediate 
IV. 
V. 
VI 

li-lS 

nroader     Views, 
Lore  of  nifltory. 
the    heroic,    dar- 
ing, chivalry.   Al 

relations,  proofa. 
etc. 

To      present 
Christ      as      tbe 
Ideal    Hero    and 
the  O    T.  as  the 
Preparation     for 
His  coming. 

Old      Testament 
History 

Old      Testament      History, 
Pts.    1*2,   and   Prepara- 
tion for  Christ.     Eille. 

Temple  Primers,  Fry.  S  S 
C.  Manual  .  Maps,  etc  , 
Falrwestber. 

Lite     of     Christ 
tbe    Meeslab 

(3)  Senior  Life.  Measlanic, 
Pts,  I  4  2. 

a    8.   C.    Manual  ,   Butlers 
How  to  Study  tbe  Life  of 
Christ;    Maps,    etc:    Con 
strucllve  Studies  iCn    Chi- 
cago) :  S    S.  C.  Manual 

Apostolic 
Church. 

S.     Paul     and    the     Early 
Church.  Pts   1  4  2. 

S.  8  C.  Manual :  Stalker's 
S.   Paul  .  Maps,  etc 

Bigb 

Benlor 

VI  I. 

VIII. 

IX. 

15-18 

Syelems.    Philos- 
ophy.    (Construe- 
live  Imagination, 
the   Future,   Bus 
InesB     FroapectB. 
Ideals     of     Love 
and  Action. 

To     secure     defl 
nite     recognition 
of  one's  iiersonal 
U  e 1  a  t 1 o  n     to 
('hrl«t.    and    tbe 
building       of       a 
suoiig.        InteUl 
gent     Christian 
ibaracter.     "The 
Csll  to  Come." 

Church    Doctrine 
and       Catechism 
proved. 

The      Doctrlnea      of      the 
Church  (Smith.  Bradner). 

Maclear  on  tbe  Creed . 
Yonge  on  the  Creed. 

Sr-    Teaching    of 
Christ    tbe    Mes- 
siah. 

(4)    Teachings    of    Christ 
the  Messiah.  Pts.  14  2. 

3.  B.  C.  Manual. 

Church  History. 

Tbe  History  of  the  Church 
The       Kingdom       Growing 
(  Bradner  1. 

Cutts'  Turning  Points,  etc. 
Maps:  Plcturea.  Mission- 
ary Board's  Periodicals. 

Port- 
Graduate 

II! 
IIL 

1S21 

R  e  formations, 
L*olltics.      Social 
and  Civic  values, 
Altrulatlc  Works 

•The      Call      to 
Go."        Personal 
work   fol   Christ 
and    Uls    King- 
dom. 

1  Elective  1 
History    of    M18; 
slons. 

General  Pamphlets. 

Religious      Peda- 

Manual   on   Tescber-Traln- 
Ing  (Smith). 

Books  cited  ID  It-' 

Soclology. 
Methods     of 
Church  Work. 

General  Pamphlets. 

Making  Bible. 

Making  Bible  (Smith). 

Books  suggested  In  It. 

Eplstlea. 

The  Epistles  of  tbe  N    T. 

S.  8    C.  Msnosl. 

Hymna. 

.Ageless  Hymns  (Smith). 

Books  suggested  In  It 

Hist,    of    Prayer 
Book. 

History  and   Use  of  P.   B. 
(Smith).     See  above. 

The  Tescber's  P.  B. 
Daniel  on  the  P.  B. 

AdnU 

Poat- 

Graduate 

21- 

All  above.      Also 
new   Interests   In 
Poetry.  Art.  Mu- 
sic.   Nature,    So- 
cial Feellnga. 

To     deepen     tbe 
HealUatlcin        of 
Hans  Value  and 
Obligation  to  So- 
ciety.    Principles 
functioning        In 
Doing. 

Choice    by    class 
from   above   top- 
ics.         Intensive 
study     of     Kpls- 
ties.    Homlletlcal 
Study  of  tbe  Bi- 
ble for  IVvotlon- 
el  Enda. 

KoTt-Conr...  1,  t,  i.  4,  srv  mom.lty  ooinpTefn.nt«ry,    Ho.  J 
follow.    1  .nd  rive.  i»«w  m.terUl  only       No.  4  In  11k*'  m.Bo.r 
ctippl.u.   No  A    All  four  m.T  b*  o.rd  by  •  .cbool  la  ..rl... 
or  4D  J  of  tbein     E^cb  1.  a  eompl.u  coorM  la  lu.lt. 

<tU>'  Cbart  maiy  bo  eccvKd  ^m  the  Ntw  York  Suoday  Scbool  Comouuioa.  *i6  L»tv*^^  SUHt.  Ntat  l^jrt. 


CURRICl'LLM— CiUADJNG   TIJE    SUNDAY   SCHOOL         251 


THREE-FOLD  DIVISION-INTELLECT.  FEELINGS.  AND  WILL  (DOING.) 

THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  FEDEP AT :0N,  SECRETARY  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  COMMISSION. 


TIiCllI.'«0 

^.^-^0 

"'■'Jr  i:\uLi" 

rf.r»"i- 

""'cIII'lo"' 

...SSiOV, 

i-icTuaaa 

Storlei    and    II 
lustrations.   Con 
crste.    Topical 
t  r  u  t  b  •.    not    a 
STSlem.       Imlta- 
tlTS       SriracIlT 
ItT.       Bible    and 
Nartrs        truths 
correlated      with 
DecaloK,      Creed, 
>Dd      Lord's 
Prayer. 

Lord's       Prayer. 
Cr.-ed,        Hymns, 
I'rivate     |.»ily 
I'rav.rs.    U  1  b  1  i 
Texts, 

Impulse 

In    Lessons, 
Hymns.     Motion 
S  o  n  g  s.  M  o  .  e- 
m  e  n  I  8.    March- 
ing. t;aines.  Kec- 
1  tat  Ions.    Pic 
t  u  r  e  s.     San  d 
tahi.\      11  lack 
board,  etc. 

Babies' 

Branch, 

Font     Roll. 
B  1  rt  hday, 
and     Mission- 
ary   Boxes, 
Junior  Auxil- 
iary. 

Occasional     at- 
tend a  nee    at 
part   of  a    Ser- 
vice, with  par 
ents.     J'ersonal 
Daily     Devo- 
tions. 

8  tereoptlcon 
Lectures  on  Mis 
slonary     Stories. 
Simple     Prajera 
for  Missions. 

S  1  e  r  e  0  p  t  Icotf 
Lectures  on  Mis- 
sions and  Bible 
and  Nature  St» 
riea. 

Mors  Suggeitlve. 
with  greater   In 
ItlatlTs     on     the 
part   of    tbt   pu 
plls. 

Psalm    2.'»,    Other 
l'«.  .     Hymns, 
IVcolog,      tilnrla 
TIbl,    Pt.    1,  Cat 
cchlsm. 

Imita- 
tion 

The     same;     hut 
less      of      bodily 

.More  rocitatlve. 

Ilinry,     M  1  n- 
Isterine   ChJl 
dren's  League 
Guild    o(    the 
Holy  Child. 

Weekly    In    Ch 
at  Special  Ser 
vices  as  above 
■Private     Pray 

Diita 

Ditto. 

Written    An 

iwers.     Pictures. 
Note  Books. 
Blogrspblcsl. 
At     11.     tllatorl 
cal.    wilb    Maps, 
Pictures.  Models, 
.Sole  Bks..  Writ 
ten  Work.  Bible 
Clippings. 

Hymns.  All  Can 
tides.        Chants, 
15    Collects,    En- 
tire Catechism 
Bible  I'assHttes 
In     lonser    aelec- 
tiona.  Psalms, 
etc.    Older  Pray- 
ers. 

Ilablt 

Manuel   work, 

Bible     and     pic- 
ture Note  Books, 
Map  making    (at 
101     In     clay, 
sand,  pulp  .  Map- 
coloring  In  trny 
ons,  colors,  dyes 
Models  made  and 
drawn.    Symbolic 
drawlngs.     etc 
S  t  ereograpbs 
Reports  on  Prin- 
ciples lived.     So- 
cial Work. 

Older     Guild 
of     Holy 
Child.  Jr      0 
F.   S,     Junior 
Auxiliary,  At 
12     years, 
Kniehts      ot 
Sir  Oalabad, 

Older     Private 
P  r  s  -      Weekly 
Public    Wor 
ship.  After  10. 
required    twice 
a  week.     Week 
day     .Services 
.N'oondoy   Pray 
er  for  -Missions. 
Children's    Eu- 
charlsu 

.\IlBSIonary  Btog- 
ra  p  b  1  e  s.  with 
Story    Studied 
and  Told  :  Stere- 
oplcon    Lectures. 
Stereographs     of 
Mission       Fields 
Regular  Missy 
Lessons.  Map- 
making,    models, 
c  0  8  t  0  m  e  a  . 
d  reased  dolls. 
Missy.  Boies  pre 
pared.      Pictures 
ot  the  Fields. 

Lectures  on  Bi- 
ble Stories,  Child 
beroes.  Missy 
Blogrsphles, 

Stmt    aa    above, 
with  more  writ 
tan   Work,     Dis 
fusalon.      Secure 
large    personal 
control  of  reclta 
tloD  by  puplia. 

S'lcene     Creed, 
Hymns.   Coll.-cts, 
rsalros,     I     Cor 
13,  Serm,  on  >H, 
Still  Older  Pray 
ers,      Iteview    or 
Canticles.      More 
P.   B.   selections 

Moral 
Crisis 

All      of     above. 
Add  much  Altru- 
istic   and    Sncial 
Work,    I.nncer 
E,s6ov«    ao.l     lil 

i'T    pant:     u'idbi 

Jr.  Auxiliary. 
Jr,  c.    F    s. 
Guilds    of    S 
John    and    S 
.Mary     White 
or     Silver 
Cross  Guilds 
Jun.  Brother 
hood   of   S 
Andrew 

All  above.  Holy 
Communion 
Self  ■  eiamlna- 
1 1  o  n.   Older 
Prayers,    Medl 
tatlon.       Devo- 
tional   Reading 
of  Bible,  etc. 

S  t  u  d-y  of  t  h  e 
History    of    .Mis 
sions.    Longer  es 
says,    readings, 
study    of    Missy 
books.     Needs  of 
the  Fields.     Best 
opportunities  for 
work.    Particular 
Prayers  for  .Mis 
sinns. 

Lectures  on  Hu 
msn  I'hyslol'igv 
sod  Moials  suil 
Health  by  Phytl 
clans.  History  of 
.^llSElons  snd  of 
the  growth  of 
the  Cbiirch.  Ch 
History.  Ch.  in 
Amerlt-a.    ill     by 

Blitorlcal     and 
bro*d.       niBcus 
slooal.       Essays. 
Written    Work 
C  0  0  a  tructlTe 
Club  Idea.    Self 
mangement. 

Selections     from 
KIble      Passages. 
esp.    S.   John.    S 
Matthew,     Re». 
It  n  d      Messianic 
Prophecies.       In 
trospeclUe     Ma- 
terial. 

Romance 

and 
Ideality 

Research    work 
on    Special    Top 

ducted    by    pupil 
leaders.     Conter 
.>nces     and     Dis- 
cussions,    rather 
than  Ilecltatlons- 

Sr,    o>t    all 
above,   Sr    G 
F,    S.    Aulll 
lary.   St.    An- 

IVghl'rs       o  f 
the     King 
Guilds    of    S 
Paul    and    S 
Catharine. 

All  above.    Add 
Worship   at 
Saints'  Days. 

Intensive     Study 
with      Reports 
A  1 1  of  a  bo ve 
Personal   Work 
and    Prayers 
Intercessory  Ser- 
vices.     Missy 
Boxes.      Conduct 
of     Jun.     Auxil- 
iary. 

Lectures  on  Jew 
Isb  life  and  cus 
ir.ms.  History  of 
Israel,  of  Christ. 
Apoat.  Cb  ,  Mis- 
sions. Making 
Bible,  Dlsoover- 
1  e  s  In  S  1  b  le 
Lands, 

Uor«   Personal 
Reaearcb     Few 
Questions.     Sug- 
gestlTe       respon- 
slTsncss.     Pupil- 
leaders.      Pupils 
plan  own  work. 

Selected   Master- 
pieces   from    lit- 
erary gems.  Bib- 
ileal.   Secular. 
Poetical.  Option- 

Decision 

Rame    as    above 
More    Individual 
contribution      to 
diacusslon.      re- 
search,      theses, 
papers,  etc 

W  0  m  a  n  •  8 

Auxiliary.   - 
Pro.     S,     An- 
drew. Daugh- 
ters    of     the 
King/    Sanct- 
uary     Chap., 
etc. 

As  above. 

Mission   Study 
Classes,       Boxes, 
Work.  Prayers, 
Noontide      Pray- 
ers, etc     Ail  as 
above. 

Lectures  on  lives 
of  Martyrs. 
Saints,  Prayer 
Book  Illstorv, 
Social  Wort, 
etc.  In  addition 
to     above     si:b 

Teachlcc.  Use  of 
stcreoptlcoa  oc 
caslonal. 

Bug*  u  tbof^ 

Optional 

ConserV" 
atlsm.. 

Same;»a  above. 

Same    as 

above. 

As  above 

As  aWive,    Great- 
er giving. 

As  above. 

'MooftttdobrcOen  and  ctpth-badied,  14x17  Indbet,  50  cents;  on  paper,  aj  cents;  In  the  BULLETIN,  10  centa. 


2r)2  RKLICaOLS  EDLCXTIOX 

f^eiieral  counso  as  tlic  large  City  School,  with  multifor]ii  adap- 
tations and  omissions,  so  will  the  Country  Sunday  School. 

Subjects  Suggested  in  a  Curriculum. 

The  author  recently  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  over  sixty 
Graded  Schools,  from  all  over  the  country.  Tlic  results  indi- 
cated that  somewhere  or  otlicr  in  a  hroad  course  of  IJcligious 
Education,  the  following  subjects  should  enter  in  if  possible, 
and,  as  we  shall  see,  in  probably  about  the  following  order: 
Bi])le  Stories,  Catechism,  Christian  Year,  Outline  of  Prayer 
Book,  Old  Testament  Biography,  Bible  Geography,  Life  of 
Christ  (Historical),  Old  Testament  History,  Christian  Doc- 
trine, Character  and  Teaching  of  Christ,  Life  of  St.  Paul, 
Church  PTistory,  Christian  Missions,  ]\Iessianic  Prophecy,  Mak- 
ing of  the  Bible,  Sunday  School  Teaching  and  Methods,  Inten- 
sive Inductive  Study  of  Epistles  and  of  Revelation,  Modern  In- 
stitutional and  Sociological  Movements,  Liturgies  and  Ilymnol- 
ogy.  Evidences  of  Eeligion. 

Detailed  Analysis  of  Each  Grade  in  a  Curriculum. 

The  Kindergartex  and  Primary  Schools.  Commencing 
at  the  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Schools,  there  should  be 
rather  a  sharp  line  of  separation  drawn  at  five-and-a-half  or  six 
years  of  age,  putting  none  under  the  former  age  in  the  Primary 
School  proper.  The  Primary  School  itself  would  then  include 
from  six  (or  thereabouts)  up  to  the  reading  age,  usually  eight 
or  eight-and-a-half.  Do  not  call  either  school  "Infants."  No 
one  is  an  "infant^'  over  one  year  old.  A  baby  name  yields  baby 
work. 

The  system  should  be  based  upon  two  principles,  (a)  That 
very  small  children  can  appreciate  only  the  concrete,  and  have 
no  proper  conception  of  cither  time  or  space.  Naturally  they 
cannot,  for  both  of  these  realizations  are  only  possible  through 
actual  experience,  and  the  child's  experience  up  to  this  period 
is  but  limited !  Hence,  on  the  one  hand,  Bible  Stories  are  best 
suited  to  the  ability  of  such  minds;  and,  in  the  second  place, 
the  order  of  these  stories  is  best  7iot  chronological  but  topical, 
according  to  subject  and  moral,  making  each  story  a  concrete 
and  graphic  whole,  a  polished  mosaic  as  it  were,  ready  finished. 


cuRRic'L  Lr.M— (;kai)JN(;  the  sinday  school       lio.-j 

to  1)0  fitted  into  the  eoniplctc  lii.storical  ^elicnic  as  it  is  presented 
at  a  later  age. 

All  educators  agree  that  the  appreciation  of  a  "system"' 
involves  abstract  elements,  such  as  relationships,  cause  and 
ciTect,  chronology,  space,  etc.  Then  a  "system"  is  unpedagogical 
for  instruction,  prior  to  adolescence,  when  reflection  and  casual 
relations  are  developed.  Tlie  individual  trutiis  of  a  system,  con- 
crete and  topical,  can  be  taught  very  early,  in  the  Kindergarten 
and  Primary  Age.  They  are  parts  of  the  great  system  of  Truth. 
Each  can  be  taught  in  detail,  and  as  such  will  be  complete  in 
itself.  Later  on,  they  will  be  welded  into  the  general  "system"" 
of  which  they  form  a  part. 

Such  stories,  well  taught,  particularly  in  this  period,  when 
memory  is  vital,  strong  and  retentive,  arc  almost  never  forgotten. 
They  form  a  groundwork  for  future  grasp  of  the  general  His- 
tory of  the  Bible. 

(6)  It  is  agreed  to-day  by  tlie  best  artists  in  educational 
circles,  that  very  young  children  can  appreciate  detailed  pic- 
tures, such  as  half-tones,  electrotypes,  etc.,  and  do  not  care  for 
inartistic  and  crude  outline  representations.  The  artistic  sense 
is  closely  akin  to  the  religious  instinct,  and  it  can  and  should  be 
deeply  awakened  at  an  early  period  in  childhood. 

Therefore  it  is  felt  by  many  that  such  outline  devices  as 
dotted-line  cards  for  sewing,  pricking  pin-holes  in,  coloring  with 
crayons  or  paints,  though  excellent  so  far  as  they  go,  are  not 
the  hcsi  that  can  be  used.  But  manifestly  something  should  be 
supplied  in  addition  to  the  description  of  the  Bible  Story  and 
the  illustrations  of  it  in  colored  chalks  on  the  blackboard,  both 
of  which  are  essential. 

There  are  two  more  factors,  without  which  the  child  cannot 
have  a  full  appreciation  of  the  lesson,  nor  the  teacher  have  done 
the  best  work. 

First,  we  must  give  the  child,  concrete  as  he  is,  a  vivid 
mental  picture  of  the  subject,  something  he  can  comprehend 
and  visualize.  More  and  more  to-day  we  are  becoming  a  visual- 
izing people.  ]\rore  and  more  we  depend  upon  pictures  and  il- 
lustrations in  our  current  reading  to  convey  to  us,  adults  even 
as  we  are,  the  rapid  and  pro]ier  conception  of  the  whole  subject 
in  hand.     Give  the  child,  therefore,  a  picture.     Use  pictures 


254  IlKLIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

right  througli,  even  np  to  and  inclufling  Bible  Class  work.  Give 
several  representations  of  the  same  subject,  that  an  erroneous 
conception  may  be  prcsvented  by  Ihe  realization  at  the  outset  that 
all  of  such  illustrations  are  but  human  ideals,  human  imagin- 
ings, of  tlie  noblest  possible  truth  embodied  in  a  Story  that  ap- 
peals to  every  age  and  race. 

Second,  we  must  provide  for  the  child's  self -activity,  liis 
own  self-expression  and  the  doing  side,  his  share  in  the  lesson 
undertaken.  Give  him  something  active  and  practical  to  do. 
It  will  color  the  whole  lesson,  because  it  is  the  share  that  he 
contributes  to  the  work.  Teach  the  lesson  verbally,  using  large 
wall  pictures,  blackboard  drawings,  and  models,  if  the  last  be 
applicable  to  the  subject.  Then  give  out  a  penny  or  half-cent 
picture  bearing  upon  the  topic,  one  to  each  child.  Provide  each 
child  with  a  Picture  Mounting  Note  Book.  Better  let  him  buy 
the  book  himself,  thus  providing  wisely  for  the  value  of  owner- 
ship, which  is  a  most  fruitful  instinct  in  arousing  interest,  and 
let  the  school  supply  the  pictures.  The  cost  of  the  pictures, 
even  for  a  large  school,  is  money  well  expended.  Large  one- 
cent  pictures  are  better  than  half-cent,  which  are  too  small  for 
the  best  appreciation  at  that  age.  In  a  large  city  school,  in  a 
congested  portion  of  New  York,  where,  as  a  school  of  very  many 
years'  standing,  there  seemed  under  no  circumstances  much 
chance  of  an  increase,  the  number  of  pupils  under  the  interest 
of  ownership  and  collecting  and  picturing  (a  powerful  trinity) 
aroused,  grew  from  75  children  to  over  225  in  less  than  five 
months.  The  pictures  are  gummed  in  by  the  children,  during 
five  minutes  allowed  each  session  for  manual  work,  using  little 
gummed  stickers,  flavored  with  wintergreen,  purchased  at  fif- 
teen cents  per  thousand  from  Dennison  (No.  a  24).  There  is 
no  mucilage  nor  dirt  in  the  operation.  Thus  a  Picture  Bible  is 
provided,  through  which  the  child  is  taught  not  only  the  lesson 
but  religious  art;  and  the  parents  are  interested  in  the  study  of 
God's  Word  by  seeing  the  book  taken  home  each  week,  and  thus 
directly  aligned  with  the  work  the  Sunday  School  is  endeavor- 
ing to  do. 

The  pictures  are  tabulated  by  kinds  and  makers  in  the  Pic- 
ture Handbook  (S.  S.  Commission,  10  cts.  postpaid),  and  we 


C'lRlUCULl'M— (iRADINC    THE    SUNDAY    SCHOOL  255 

would  ur<^e  the  reader  to  carefully  study  Ihe  remarks  there  re- 
garding the  choice  and  use  of  pictures  in  the  graded  school. 

TIIK  MAIN   SCHOOL. 

Orammar  School. — Junior  and  Intermediate  Departments. 
This  corresponds  to  the  Grammar  School  in  secular  educa- 
tion, and  it  is  often  best  called  by  that  name.  It  will  embrace 
children  from  the  reading  age  to  Confirmation  or  beyond,  say 
fourteen  or  fifteen  years  old.  The  best  method,  as  suggested, 
is  the  Heuristic  or  Source  Method,  so  potent  and  so  popular 
to-day.  This  demands  actual  recourse  to  the  original  sources 
of  information  and  instruction,  i.e.,  the  Bible,  the  Prayer  Book, 
Church  Ilistory,  etc.,  as  the  original  source  of  study,  the  nearest 
we  can  get  to  the  sources.  It  means  putting  the  Bible,  Prayer 
Book,  etc.,  tangibly  into  the  hands  of  the  children  for  refer- 
ence and  individual  home  study,  both  in  the  Sunday  School  hour 
and  in  the  home  preparation  of  the  lessons.  The  answers  to 
certain  questions  are  looked  up  and  studied  at  home,  and  the 
results  brought  into  class,  written  down  as  answers,  in  the  form 
of  full  statements,  either  in  the  Lesson  Manuals  themselves,  or 
in  special  Xote  Books  (often  picture  mounting  books),  or  on 
separate  Sheets  of  Paper,  according  to  local  direction.  In  many 
cases,  an  additional  set  of  questions  with  each  lesson,  designated 
to  be  discussed  in  class,  provides  for  the  fundamental  principle 
of  modern  education,  that  the  class  hour  should  not  be  a  dead, 
dull,  dry  recitation,  the  reproduction  in  class  of  old  material, 
prepared  at  home;  but  the  study  of  the  subject  from  a  new 
view-point,  the  impartation  of  new  and  helpful  material,  the 
practical  functioning  of  the  lesson  in  the  lives  and  interests  of 
the  pupils.  Thus  something  will  be  missed  if  the  child  remains 
absent  from  school.  In  the  old  recitation  way,  nothing  is 
missed.  The  child  merely  comes  to  class  to  show  up  results,  to 
prove  that  he  has  studied  and  understands  the  lesson. 

Grade  I. — Grammar  School.    (About  8  or  9  years  old.) 
Catechism,  Prayer  Book,  Church  Year. 

In  this  grade,  it  is  suggested  that  no  sudden  break  in 
method  be  introduced  from  that  in  use  in  the  Primary  School, 
from  which  the  children  have  just  come;  and  yet  that  the  prin- 


250  llEIJGIOUS  EDUCATION 

ciples  of  the  Grainiiiar  School  be  fully  included.  Therefore 
pictures  should  be  retained,  and  the  reader  is  urged  to  study  the 
regular  Picture-Grading  Principles.  But  Written  Work  with 
Question-and-Ansvver  llesearch  Methods  are  now  to  be  added. 

There  are  three  subjects  that  a  child  of  this  first  grade 
ought  to  become  acquainted  with,  in  outline  at  least. 

(a)  The  Text  of  the  Catechism,  because  it  is  the  very  best 
memoriter  age  of  the  whole  child  life.  What  is  learned  now  is 
practically  never  forgotten.  It  juay  not  be  fully  understood; 
but  the  ease  with  which  it  is  learned  by  heart  more  than  com- 
pensates. Moreover,  tlie  child  loves  this  memory  work  now, 
fully  as  much  as  it  dislikes  it  later.  In  a  higher  grade,  at  the 
time  of  Confirmation,  Christian  Doctrine,  with  Thought  Ques- 
tions, deeper  and  abstract,  is  taken  up,  and  the  meaning  of  what 
is  now  committed  to  memory  learned.  That  it  has  some  deeper 
and  satisfactory  explanation,  the  child  will  assume.  A  simple 
statement  of  the  Faith — the  fact  that,  drawn  out  by  Fact  Ques- 
tions, is  all-sufficient  at  this  early  period.  With  the  Illustrated 
Text  Book  on  the  Catechism  used  in  conjunction  with  the  Step 
Catechism,  divided  into  parts  for  certificating,  this  study  is  de- 
lightful, even  at  this  age.  This  is  readily  accomplished  in  a 
one-half-year  course. 

(b)  Some  Knowledge  of  How  to  Use  the  Prayer  Book. 
We  ought  to  build  up  Habits  of  Living  at  the  earliest  age.  All 
our  teaching  is  useless  unless  it  functions,  that  is,  results  in 
living  out  the  teaching.  Just  as  in  Kindergarten  and  Primary 
Schools,  we  make  our  teaching  about  the  Loving  God  vital  to 
the  child,  by  providing  him  with  Prayer  Cards  and  so  building 
up  Prayer  Habits  we  have  talked  about,  so  here  we  require  the 
child  to  attend  Public  Worship  at  least  once  a  week,  not  as  com- 
pulsory Church,  but  as  a  training  in  the  Services.  But  to  at- 
tend either  intelligently  or  enjoyably,  he  must  know  how  to  use 
the  Prayer  Book.  So  while  we  spend  one-half  a  year  on  the 
Catechism,  which  is  an  abundant  period,  if  we  teach  it  rightly, 
with  the  use  of  the  Step  Method,  we  devote  the  second  half- 
year  to  the  study  of  the  Prayer  Book,  in  the  use  of  Morning 
Prayer,  Evening  Prayer,  Litany,  Holy  Communion,  Infant  Bap- 
tism, etc.,  the  Services  the  child  will  attend  and  use.     The  His- 


ciinncrLrM— (;uAi)i\(;    tiik  sixd.w  s(  iiooi,       -i:,: 

lory  ami   Details  ol'  the  I'ra^er  Jiook  (Uiglit  lo  Ijc  postjjoned  to 
adolescence. 

{(■)  SoiiK'  Knowledge  of  the  Christian  Year.  This  should 
come  now  I'or  three  reasons.  First,  the  great  hindrance  to  a 
proper  series  of  lesson  manuals  in  the  past  was  the  distortion  of 
any  Course  hy  a  desire  to  conform  its  teaching  to  the  Church 
Year.  Xow  no  course,  even  one  on  the  Life  of  Christ,  can  he 
mapped  out  in  (lu(>  ])roportion,  it'  we  follow  the  hrief  Church 
Year.  The  eonseijuence  is  that  even  adults  have  no  conception 
whatevei-  of  the  Life  of  Christ  Historically,  in  any  real  sequence 
of  Ministry  or  Events.  The  Church  "^'eai-  was  never  intended 
for  Sunday  School  Lesson  Courses,  hut  for  the  Puhlic  Services. 
It  needs  to  he  taught,  however,  for  a  clear  appreeialion  of  the 
Services.  Teach  it,  in  connection  with  the  Catechism  and 
Prayer  Book,  cwvy  Sunday  through  the  Course,  devoting  five 
minutes  thereto,  using  the  Deaconess  Patterson  Chart,  Pictures 
of  Events  and  Saints,  the  Coloration  of  the  Day  or  Season,  and 
the  Rhyme  of  the  Christian  Year.  A  good  plan  for  a  hrief  and 
interesting  lesson  is  to  mount  up  a  series  of  large  cards  (22x'i8 
inches)  with  all  the  peiiny  pictures  on  that  suhject  (say  Christ- 
mas or  S.  Tliomas),  adding  a  strip  of  colored  rihhon  to  the  card 
for  the  coloration  of  the  day,  and  keep  the  series  on  hand  in  the 
lihrary,  to  he  loaned  out  as  required  each  Sunday.  With  the 
Patterson  Chart,  this  makes  a  most  vivid  and  interesting 
Course. 

Grades  II.  and  III. — Grammar  School.     (Ahout  9  or  10  to  11 

or  13  years  old.) 

Old  Testament  Stories. 

Some  schools  are  ahle  to  combine  the  study  of  Grade  L  with 
direct  Bible  Work,  and  begin  the  First  Grade  of  the  Main 
School  with  Old  Testament  Stories,  which  we  have  herein  put 
as  Grade  IL,  and  made  a  combination  lesson  each  Sunday,  divid- 
ing the  time  between  Old  Testament  Stories  and  the  Catechism, 
Pra3'er  Book,  and  Church  Year.  There  is  no  objection  to  this 
plan,  either  practically  or  pedagogically,  provided  neither  sub- 
ject be  neglected  and  the  hour  be  sufficiently  long  for  uninter- 
rupted study  and  teaching,  to  permit  a  proper  time  being  al- 
lotted to  each.     The  only  danger  seems  to  be  the  neglect  or  per- 


258  RELKJfOrS  EDICATIOX 

functory  teaching  of  the  Catechism,  etc.,  which,  as  foundation 
principles,  is  too  significant  to  be  set  aside  to  secondary  phice. 

Tiic  First  Year  of  Old  Testament  Stories,  as  arranged  by 
the  Commission  Series,  is  designed  to  be  used  thus :  The  Story 
is  told  by  the  Teacher  one  Sunday,  studied  and  looked  up  in  the 
Bible  by  the  children  during  the  week,  and  re-told,  under  the 
questions  assigned  in  the  books,  hy  the  children  the  following 
Sunday.  This  is  talked  about  and  illustrated  with  Pictures  in 
the  Mounting  Books  (sec  Chapter  on  Picture  Mounting  Books). 
The  New  or  Advanced  Story  is  then  told  and  the  lesson  for  the 
next  week  assigned.  This  never  takes  more  than  twenty  min- 
utes. In  most  schools  ample  time  is  left  in  which  to  treat  the 
Lessons  on  the  Catechism  and  the  Prayer  Book  in  the  same 
way,  telling,  not  writing,  save  with  extra  bright  pupils,  or  toward 
the  end  of  the  first  year  in  the  Course.  In  the  Second  Year  of 
the  Old  Testament  Story  Course  all  the  Home  Work  is  to  be 
ivritlen.  Teachers  should  in  all  cases  always  read  over  the  Di- 
rections to  Teachers  in  all  the  Courses  before  beginning  to  pre- 
pare the  first  lesson,  for  no  two  courses  are  to  be  taught  quite 
alike,  and  the  right  method  of  teachi)ig  any  course  is  absolutely 
essential  to  its  success. 

If  such  a  combination  be  made,  however,  this  Grade  becomes 
Grade  I.,  and  all  the  other  courses  move  back  one  grade. 

Grade  IV. — Grammar  School.    (About  11  or  12  years  old.) 

liife  of  Jesus  Christ.    A  Junior  and  Concrete  Course. 

Note  on  Map  Work  from  this  grade  on. 

Beginning  with  this  grade,  or  even  at  the  age  of  ten  in  the 
previous  grade,  ma])s  are  imperative  to  successful  teaching. 
There  should  be  three  series  of  maps,  almost  constantly  in  use 
from  this  age  forward  in  all  the  grades,  right  through  the  so- 
called  Bible  Classes. 

(1)  Small  class  maps,  showing  the  physical  contour  of  the 
Holy  Land  and  the  Eoman  Empire,  since  much  of  the  History 
of  the  Chosen  People  was  conditioned  directly  by  their  environ- 
ment. 

(2)  Many  small  outline  maps,  in  whicli  the  pupils  may 
insert  cities,  rivers,  journeys,  etc.,  both  enabling  them  to  locate 


c'LUKie  riJ'.M  -i;kadl\c;  thk  sl'Nuay  .school       im 

properly  and  ponnaiiontly,  and  j)i-()vidiii_<i;  for  ii)lcrfst  and  self- 
activity  and  comparison. 

(3)  A  good  set  of  the  best  descriptive  and  historical  maps 
obtainable.  These  should  be  for  wall  use,  not  too  large,  with 
not  too  many  and  confusing  names  and  drawings;  clear,  accurate, 
and  distinct.  There  is  a  great  room  for  study  and  judgment 
in  the  selection  of  such  maps.  Some  of  the  cheapest  are  the 
best,  while  the  most  costly  are  the  most  inaccurate,  it  cliances. 
Such  wide  strides  have  been  made  through  recent  surveys  and 
discoveries,  that  out  of  the  numy  hundreds  of  maps  now  on  the 
market,  no  one  firm  has  all  maps  of  a  series  up-to-date,  and  a 
combination  is  the  only  satisfactory  method.  It  is  better  to 
have  many  small,  clear  maps  scattered  through  each  room  than 
a  few  large  and  expensive  ones.  Five  maps  of  St.  Paul's  jour- 
neys, for  example,  hung  low  down  where  children  can  study 
them  at  finger-end,  costing  $1.00  each,  are  infinitely  more  re- 
sultful  than  one  $5.00  map  hung  high  and  out  of  clear  range. 

This  subject  is  carefully  treated  in  the  chapter  on  Graded 
Map  Work 

Grade  V. — Grammar  School.    (About  12  or  13  years  old.) 
Junior  Teachings  of  Christ  or  Apostolic  Leaders. 

In  some  schools  this  grade  is  omitted,  and  the  scholars  pass 
on  to  Grade  VI.  on  Old  Testament  History.  When  this  grade 
is  used,  it  should  be  set  in  this  place.  There  is  a  choice  offered 
of  either  one  or  two  courses ;  one  is  a  splendid,  concrete  course 
on  Christian  Ethics  for  Younger  Children,  the  Teachings  of 
Christ,  based  on  the  preceding  one  of  His  Divine  Life,  but  con- 
taining no  subjects  that  were  incorporated  in  that  course :  or 
the  second  course,  on  the  Stories  of  Early  Christian  Leaders  of 
the  Apostolic  Church,  SS.  Stephen,  Peter,  John,  Philip,  and 
Paul.  Some  scliools  take  up  both  courses,  and  move  the  Old 
Testament  History  Course  one  year  further  on  still. 

Grade  VI. — Grammar  School.    (About  13  or  14  years  old.) 
Old  Testament  History. 

Now  is  the  age  when  the  Historical  Appreciation  is  well 
developed,  and  the  Concrete  Stories  of  the  Old  Testament, 
studied  without  special  regard  to  chronology  and  historic  set- 
ling  in  the  early  grades,  can  be  welded  together  into  a  bright 


260  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

and  vivid  outline  cour-se  on  Old  Tt'stanient  History.  We  there- 
fore take  this  subject  up  now.  If  Grade  V.  be  omitted,  this 
grade  can  then  be  moved  back  to  the  age  of  12,  and  Grade  VII., 
on  the  l^ife  of  Ciirist  the  IVIessiah,  can  well  come  at  tlie  Con- 
firmation Age,  when,  as  Stanley  Hall  says,  "Christ  comes  with 
special  force  and  attraction  in  this  age  of  adolescence."  If 
Grade  I.  be  combined  with  Grades  II.  and  III.,  the  same  result 
will  be  obtained,  while  if  Grade  V.  be  omitted  also,  this  entire 
Grade  VI.  goes  back  two  years. 

Grade  VII. — Grammar  School.  (About  13  or  14  years  old.) 
Life  of  Christ  as  the  Messiah. 
After  an  appreciation  of  the  Preparation  of  the  W'orUl  for 
the  Coming  of  God's  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  our  I^ord,  most  naturally 
comes  the  Study  of  the  Divine  Christ  as  the  Messiah,  fulfilling 
all  Prophecy.  So  we  take  up  this  subject,  with  deeper  Thought- 
Questions,  as  contrasted  with  the  simpler,  concrete  Fact-Ques- 
tions that  characterize  the  Study  of  His  Life  in  the  earlier 
Grade.  As  in  the  former  Grades,  Picture  and  j\lap  Work  ought 
to  be  prominent.  Picture  Biographies,  written  u])  in  Note 
Books,  with  drawings,  maps,  and  longer  essays,  with  certainly 
some  original  research  work,  ought  to  be  main  features  in  these 
classes,  if  really  productive  work  be  expected. 
Grade  VIII. — Grammar  School.  (About  14  or  15  years  old.) 
Teachings  of  Christ,  the  Messiah,  or  Ciiristian  Doctrine. 
Here  is  where  the  Confirmation  Instruction  usually  begins, 
or  earlier,  if  one  or  more  of  the  preceding  grades  be  omitted. 
It  is  felt,  however,  by  a  growing  number  in  the  Church,  that 
our  Religious  Schools  owe  it  to  the  youth  they  take  in  hand  to 
educate  them  fully  for  their  complete  spiritual  environment. 
Every  scholar  therefore  ought  to  have  a  thorough  course  in 
Church  Doctrine  and  Teachings,  and  not  alone  the  selected  few 
of  the  Confirmation  Class.  Hence  a  course  of  Church  Doctrine 
is  inserted  at  this  point.  This  is  the  age  of  doubt — of  intel- 
lectual storm  and  stress,  of  settling  one's  own  faith  and  religion. 
It  is  seen  in  the  deeper  abstract,  philosophical  thought-questions 
that  now  creep  out ;  in  the  reading  of  infidel  books,  not  because 
they  attract,  but  because  they  seem  to  answer  the  surging  ques- 
tions of  doubt,  and  give  an  answer  to  the  active  reason.     State- 


CURRICIJAM— (IRADINd    THE    SIXDAY    SCiTOOL  201 

nients  now  are  not  taken  for  granted.  Reason  demands  proof. 
Facts  are  carefully  weighed.  A  reason  for  the  faith  is  demanded, 
and  should  be  given,  fearlessly,  candidly,  fruitfully. 

Hence  this  Doctrine  Course  should  be  intellectual,  progres- 
sive, fearless,  and  thorough — going  on  the  source  method  di- 
rectly to  the  Catechism,  Prayer  Rook,  and  Bible,  giving  a  com- 
plete review  of  the  Faith  once  delivered  to  the  Saints,  taking  up 
both  Church  and  Christian  Evidences,  establishing  a  firm 
foundation  which  doubt  and  darkness  can  never  overthrow.  The 
Confirmation  Class  then  would  be  applied  doctrine  as  it  were. 

Should  it  be  that  a  school  decides  not  to  supply  a  Doctrine 
Course,  the  class  may  pass  directly  on  to  any  of  the  several  ad- 
vanced Bible  or  Senior  Courses,  of  which  the  following  grades 
supply  a  goodly  number. 

Note  Books  should  always  be  used  at  this  age,  and  abundant 
notes  taken,  on  research  work. 

1 1  Hill    SCHOOL. 

Grade  I. — High  School    (About  15  or  16  years  old.) 

The  History  of  the  Founding  of  the  Christian  Church  in 

Apostolic  Days 

appeals  with  significant  force  to  the  adolescent  youth  or  maiden. 

It  should  be  thoroughly  considered  now,  with  plenty  of  Note 

AVork,  Map-Drawing,  etc. 

Grade  II. — High  School.    (About  16  to  17  years  old.) 

Church  History  and  Christian  Missions. 

Recommended  Books. 

These  are  important,  and  really  should  not  be  left  until  so 
late;  but  there  seems  no  opportunity  to  get  these  subjects  in,  in 
detailed  study,  until  now,  in  the  crowded  years  previously 
mapped  out.  This  is,  moreover,  the  age  when  the  perspective 
and  principles  of  History  are  best  appreciated.  Of  course,  it 
is  needless  to  state  that  it  is  presupposed  that  Missions,  in  their 
Biographical  and  Inspirational  Phases,  are  constantly  being  pre- 
sented in  the  schools,  both  in  the  regular  classes  and  in  the 
Kindergarten  and  Prinuiry  Classes.  Note  carefully  the  place 
and  work  of  Missions  in  the  Tabular  Curriculum.     It  is  only 


262  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

the  History,  in  its  more  technical  bearing,  that  comes  under  our 
particular  consideration  now. 

Grade  III. — High  School.  (About  17  or  18  years  old.) 
Principles  of  Teaching. 
It  is  now  time  that  scholars  sliould  be  preparing  to  go  out 
from  the  school  as  teachers,  and  to  pass  on  to  others  the  knowl- 
edge that  they  have  already  acquired.  Just  as  every  scholar  has 
taken  a  course  in  Christian  Doctrine,  and  as  every  graduate  of 
our  modern  college  has  taken  a  course  in  the  Principles  of  Teach- 
ing, because  it  is  recognized  that  everyone  ought  to  know  how  to 
teach,  for  everyone  will  be  a  teacher,  if  not  in  school,  then  at 
home  with  one's  own  children,  so  ought  each  graduate  of  the 
Sunday  School  to  take  a  course  on  the  Pedagogics  of  Education, 
Child  Study,  Human  Nature,  and  How  to  Teach,  no  matter 
whether  or  no  he  intends  to  teach  the  Sunday  School  classes. 
He  probably  would  teach  so  soon  as  he  felt  prepared  to  do  so. 
Thus  the  lamentable  dearth  and  practical  inexperience  of  our 
teaching  staff  would  speedily  be  overcome. 

THE  POST-GRADUATE  SCHOOL. 

While  all  have  taken  the  course  on  Education,  yet  not  all 
may,  nor  probably  will,  l)ecome  teachers  at  once.  They  should 
be  encouraged  to  remain  in  tlie  school,  in  the  highest  department, 
which  might  then,  perhaps,  be  called  the  Post-Graduatc  School. 
Here  important  subjects  yet  remain  to  be  considered.  The 
longer  we  can  hold  young  men  and  women  in  the  atmosphere  of 
research,  inquiry,  and  study,  the  attitude  that  hungers  to  remain 
throughout  life  a  seeker  after  truth,  the  better  it  will  be  for  the 
world  and  education. 

Grade  I. — Post-Gradnato  School.    (About  18  or  19  years  old.) 

The  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament,  or  The  Prophets  of  the 

Old  Testament. 

The  only  vital  subjects  that  have  been  left  out  in  our  Under- 

Graduate  Course  have  been  the  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament, 

and  the  Old  Testament  Prophets.     Without  some  knowledge  of 

these  writings,  no  student  is  quite  "well-educated."     Possibly 

some  survey  of  the  non-Christian  or  Heathen  Eeligions  and 


ClTvRirrUM— (iRADIXr;    the    SL'XDAV    school  2t5:{ 

tlic'ir  relation  to  Cliristiaiiitv  might  al<o  well  be  considered  after 
this. 

Grade  II. — Post  Gmduale  School.  (About  19  or  20  years  old.) 
Metiiods  of  (■hurch  Work. 
This  should  embrace  all  our  distinctive  Church  Organiza- 
tions for  general  Home,  Foreign,  and  Diocesan  Mission  Work, 
})reparing  the  scholars  to  intelligently  enter  the  various  Societies 
with  which  most  working  Parishes  are  equipped.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, the  proper  way  would  be  for  the  entire  Sunday  School  to  be 
the  Young  People's  Society,  with  each  organization,  separate 
to  an  extent  in  its  aims,  its  part  of  the  machinery  of  the  Sunday 
School  at  Work,  carrying  out  in  practice  the  principles  it  spends 
sessions  in  discussing.  Everyone  a  member  of  the  Sunday 
School  ought  to  be  a  member  of  some  one  or  more  of  the 
Societies,  and  not  the  meagre  few.  The  divorcement  of  the 
Societies  from  the  active  organization  of  the  Sunday  School  is 
largely  to  blame  for  this  estrangement  between  principles  and 
practice.  Each  person  and  each  class  should  have  material  and 
spiritual  altruistic  work  to  do  for  God.  If  a  General  Society 
does  not  exist,  form  a  local  one. 

Grade  III. — Post  Graduate  School.  (About  20  or  21  years  old.) 
Modern  Missions. 
After  a  brief  review  of  the  Organizations  of  the  Church, 
doing  Missionary  Work  of  varied  phases,  it  would  be  well  to 
take  up  more  definitely  the  study  of  the  Rise  and  Spread  of 
Modern  Missions. 

Grade  IV.— Post  Graduate  School.    (About  21  or  22  years  old.) 

Sociology. 
A  finishing  touch  is  yet  needed  in  order  that  the  child  of 
God  may  be  tlioroughly  furnished  to  every  good  work,  and  that 
is  a  glance  at  Modern  Movements,  Institutional  and  Sociolog- 
ical. 

Grade  V. — Post  Graduate  School.    (About  22  or  23  years  old.) 
History  of  the  Prayer  Book. 
If,  perchance,  the  subject  of  the  Prayer  Book  has  not  been 
covered  sufliciently,  either  in  the  study  of  Grade  L,  Grammar 


204  REi.irnors  edccatiox 

School,  or  ill  .slioi-l  Supijlciiiciilary  or  Suiiiincr  ('our.<c,  and  if 
"the  thirst  for  knowledge"'  has  heen  instilled  enough  tliat  tlie 
students  are  held  effectively  until  this  age,  a  delightful  Adult 
Course  will  !)(>  the  Rationale  and  Ilislorv  and  I'sc  of  the  Pravcr 
Book. 

The  Best  Practical  Way  to  Set  About  Grading. 

Many  so-called  graded  schools  fail  in  a  few  months  and 
soinetinies  throw  out  the  graded  system  as  the  result,  hecause 
neither  officers,  teachers,  pupils,  nor  parents  understand  what 
they  are  doing,  or  what  the  graded  system  is,  or  what  part  they 
play  in  the  curriculum  of  the  school.  Printer's  ink  here  is  money 
well  expended  and  the  suggestions  given  below  are  those  that  all 
practical  experience  has  proved  to  be  the  very  best. 

Grading  should  be  done  by  Day  School  Grades,  which  show 
the  ability  of  the  pupils  to  handle  the  material  of  Education, 
rather  than  by  Ages  or  Height,  as  is  often  the  case. 

Make  a  List  first  of  all  pupils,  arranged  alphabetically,  by 
name.  Indicate  age,  address,  and  Day  School  Grade.  Arrange 
in  Classes  by  the  Day  School  Standing,  all  third  grades  together 
(i.  e.,  about  8  years  old)  ;  all  fourth  grades,  etc.  If  the  school 
be  too  small  for  single  grades  of  separated  boys  and  girls,  either 
place  boys  and  girls  together,  or  combine  the  two  adjoining 
grades  in  one  class,  thus  the  third  and  fourths  together,  making 
a  two-year  Course  for  that  Class,  one  year  in  the  topic  that 
would  naturally  come  for  the  third  grade  and  the  second  year  in 
that  set  forth  for  the  fourth  grade.  In  this  way,  the  complete 
Curriculum  is  covered  with  but  half  the  number  of  classes. 

Then  next,  do  not  fail  to  u.se  a  little  Printer's  Ink.  Most 
schools  fail  right  here.  Aftt'r  a  year  the  teachers  and  pupils 
become  discouraged  and  want  all  one  subject.  Or  Miss  Jones 
wants  to  teach  the  "interesting  book  Miss  Brown  has,"  and  sees 
no  reason  why  her  class  may  not  have  it.  It  is  because  the 
Teachers  and  Pupils  do  not  know  what  the  system  is,  do  not 
grasp  the  Curriculum,  do  not  s('(>  what  wheel  each  one  is  in  the 
general  machinery. 

Therefore  issue  a  little  folder  like  the  s;iin])]c  below.  Print 
an  abundance  of  them.  Circulate  them  freely,  (iive  one  to  every 
scholar,  every  parent,  every  teacher.     Sow  them  broadcast  in  the 


(  I  1!KI(  I  LIM— (ii;AI)|\(;     TIIK    SLNDAV    SrilOOL  H<r, 

ti'wii.  li  is  i^ood  and  conscrval ivc  advortising.  Dozens  of  do- 
iKMiiinational  children  will  (lock  in.  Ix'ing  brought,  oft-tinics,  hv 
the  parents  themselves,  because  they  admire  a  systematic  and 
pedagogical  school.  It  works  well  every  time.  Here  is  the 
sanij)le. 
rage  I. 

The 

(I'radeil    Sunday    Scliool 

of 

Christ   Church, 

Bloomfield. 

X.  Y. 
Our  Ideals. 

Evcnj  Scholar  present  Every  Sundai/. 

Every  Scholar  present  OX  Ti:\rE. 

Every  Scholar  Saying  Pi'ivate  i'l-ayers  at    Home,  ^Lorning  and 

Evening. 
Every  Parent  Jlelinng  the  School  in  the  Home  Work. 
Pages  2  and  3. 

Our  Graded  Curriculum. 
The  Kiii(l('r</(irlni  »SV7/oo/  (to  G  years). 

Stories  from  the  Old  Testament,  New  Testament,  and  Xature. 
The  Primary  School  (to  Third  Grade  Day  School). 
Similar  stories  with  older  treatment. 
The  Grammar  School. 

Class  of  1918. 
Catechism,  Christian  Year,  Use  of  Prayer  Book,  Old  Testament 

Stories. 

Class  of  191T. 

Old  Testament  Stories  (,'onipleted. 

Class  of  li)lti. 

Junior  Historical    Life  of  Christ. 

Class  of    1  !•].■). 

IVachings  of  ( 'lii'isi    (  I-]thics)  or.  l-'arly  Chi-istian   Leaders. 

7'' he  lliyh  School. 

Class  of  IS) II. 
Old  Testament  History  as  the  Preparation  for  the  Messiah. 


-'66  1{ELI(;I01US  KDL'CATION 

Class  of  1913. 

Life  of  Christ  the  Messiah. 

Class  of  1912. 

The  Teaehiii^.s  of  Clirist  the  Messiah  or  Christian  Doctrine. 

Class  of  1911. 

The  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church. 

Class  of  1910. 

Church  History. 

Class  of  3909. 

The  Epistles  and  their  Writers. 

The  Fast-Graduate  School. 

Normal  and  Bible  Classes. 

Elective  Subjects. 

Page  4. 

The  Roll  of  the  Teachers  in  Our  School. 
(Here  follows  the  list  of  Teachers  and  their  Addresses,  that 
parents  of  the  scholars  may  communicate  with  them,  if  neces- 
sary.) 

The  i)lan  of  ])utting  "Class  of,''  etc.  is  far  better  psycho- 
logically than  Class  I.,  Class  II.  etc.,  or  even  than  Class  A,  Class 
B,  etc.  Tlic  moral  effect  on  the  pupils  is  to  keep  them  banded 
together  as  a  Class  unit  and  io  hold  them  in  the  School  until 
the  graduating  point.  They  do  not  drop  out  so  readily  in  this 
way.  Some  Schools  prefer  not  to  commence  "Class  of"  nomen- 
clature until  adolescence  (say  12  or  13  years  old),  using  "Grade 
I,"  etc.,  earlier,  with  the  idea  in  mind  that  young  children  may 
be  discouraged  by  looking  too  far  ahead. 

Other  Details.  There  will  follow  special  chapters  towards 
the  end  of  this  book  on  Manual  Work  in  the  Grades,  and  under 
the  Business  End  of  the  Sunday  School  will  be  considered  prac- 
tical suggestions  for  developing  the  Private  Prayer  life  of  the 
children. 

Note: — The  Organization  of  the  .School  is  considered  in  Cliap.  XXV. 
Teaching  Versus  Training. 

Trumbull  renuirks :  "It  luis  been  said  that  the  essence  of 
teaching  is  causing  another  to  know.     It  may  similarly  be  said 


CURRICULUM— GRADING    THE    SUNDAY    SCHOOL  207 

that  the  essence  of  training  is  causing  another  to  do.  Teaching 
gives  knowledge.  Training  gives  skilL  Teaching  fills  the  mind. 
Training  shapes  the  habits.  Teaching  brings  to  the  child  that 
which  he  did  not  have  before.  Training  enables  a  child  to  make 
use  of  that  which  is  already  his  possession.  We  teach  a  child  the 
meaning  of  words.  We  train  a  child  in  speaking  and  walking. 
We  teach  him  the  truths  which  we  have  learned  for  ourselves. 
We  train  him  in  habits  of  study,  that  he  may  be  able  to  learn 
other  truths  for  himself.  Training  and  teaching  must  go  on  to- 
gether in  the  wise  up-bringing  of  any  and  every  child.  The 
one  will  fail  of  its  own  best  end  if  it  be  not  accompanied  by  the 
other.  He  who  knows  how  to  teach  a  child,  is  not  competent 
for  the  oversight  of  a  child's  education  unless  he  knows  how  to 
train  a  child. 

"Training  is  a  possibility  long  before  teaching  is.  Before  a 
child  is  old  enough  to  know  what  is  said  to  it,  it  is  capable  of 
feeling,  and  of  conforming  to,  or  of  resisting,  the  pressure  of 
efforts  for  its  training.  A  very  young  child  can  be  trained  to  cry 
for  what  it  wants,  or  to  keep  quiet,  as  a  means  of  securing  it. 
And,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  training  of  children  is  begun  much 
earlier  than  their  teaching.  Many  a  child  is  well  started  in  its 
life-training  by  the  time  it  is  six  weeks  old,  even  though  its 
elementary  teaching  is  not  attempted  until  months  after  that. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  is  the  best  practical  system  of  grading?    Wliy? 

2.  What  subjects  would  you  suggest  for  study  in  your  Scliool?    WTiy 

not  others?    W^hy  just  that  list? 

3.  How  could  you   improve  your  Kindergarten   and   Primary   Depart- 

ments? 

4.  What  studies  and  methods  come  liest  in  the  ages  from  S  to  12,  or 

thereabouts  ? 

5.  What  special  lines  should  be  left  until  Adolescence  has  been  well 

advanced?    Whv? 


PART  VI. 

The  Class 
The  How  of  Teaching 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
ORDER. 

SUGGKSTi:i)   KEA DINGS. 


Order: 


Ildw  TO  Kkkp  Oisdek.     Hughes. 

'I'HE    FOINUATION    OK    EDUCATION.       SCClcy.       pp.    Qiilf. 

TiiK  Mi.\D  OK  A  Child.     Richmond. 

'I'lu;  Art  ok  TEACin.\«.     Fitch,     pp.  107-140. 

CinucHjiAN's  Ma.nmal.     Butler,     p.  G9. 

My  rEDACofiic  CuKED.     Dciccy.     pp.  4,  5,  13. 

TuAiNi.\<!  OK  THE  Twig.     Drawbridye.     pp.  48,  l.")9,  10."?,  109. 

What  is  Order? 

"■'Order  is  ] leaven's  first  law,"  and  it  is  certainly  also  the 
first  law  of  the  Class.  Without  Order,  no  good  teaching  can  be 
secured.  Many  of  the  suggestions  given  in  other  chapters,  such 
as  size  of  class,  readiness  and  personality  of  the  teacher,  method 
of  teaching,  illustrating,  questioning,  etc.,  affect  Order.  James 
H.  Hughes,  Inspector  of  the  Toronto  Schools,  has  written  a  help- 
ful brochure  upon  this  subject.  He  defines  good  Order  as  "the 
conscious  recognition  of  law,  and  a  cooperative  submission  to 
constituted  authority.  It  places  no  restraint  on  those  who  arc 
well  disposed.  Law  is  perfect  liberty  to  those  who  do  right. 
Oood  order  does  not  mean  merely  freedom  from  disorder.  It  is 
positive,  not  negative.  Order  is  work  systematized."  Our  evil 
tendencies  and  our  weaknesses  serve  to  lead  us  away  from  Order 
and  Duty. 

"A  teacher  who  fails  to  keep  Order  fails  in  one  of  the  very 
highest  duties.  The  grandest  aim  of  all  educational,  ennobling, 
and  Christianizing  agencies  is  to  bring  the  whole  human  race 
into  conscious,  intelligent,  and  cooperative  obedience  to  the 
Divine  Law-giver."  The  Sunday  School  Class  is  one  of  the  very 
agencies  of  the  most  use  in  training  and  educating  this  habit  of 
Order.    Thus  it  is  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  Teacher,  nor  yet 


272  REI.K;fOrs    EDICATION 

for  the  sake  of  the  individual  Ix'sson  to  bo  laugJit,  that  Order 
must  be  maintained  ;  but  for  the  general  good  of  the  child.  Thus 
training  in  Order  is  just  as  truly  educative  as  is  Teaching. 

Hughes  defines  Order  thus: — "Order  is  the  condition  re- 
sulting from  an  exact  ])erl'()rmance  of  duty  in  the  right  way  and 
at  the  right  time."  Adding,  "Order  includes  a  great  deal  more 
than  the  condition  of  the  pupils  and  their  relationship  to  their 
work.  An  orderly  school  is  one  in  wliich  tlicre  is  a  special  place 
for  everything,  and  in  wliich  everything — maps,  apparatus,  mov- 
able furniture,  etc.. — is  kept  in  place.  In  such  a  school,  the 
books  of  the  pupils  arc  arranged  in  proper  order  in  their  desks, 
and  there  are  no  scraps  of  ])aper,  or  other  rubbish,  on  the  floor." 

Practically  speaking,  Order  is  minding  your  own  business 
and  helping  others  to  mind  theirs.  According  to  Mr.  Gill)ert: 
"Conduct  rests  upon  two  classes  of  motives  which  in  most  of  us 
are  so  inextricably  mixed  that  we  cannot  distinguish  one  from 
the  other.  One  is  convention  and  the  other  the  inner  law  of 
right  based  upoii  reason. 

"Every  phase  of  life,  every  social  institution,  must  of  neces- 
sity have  its  own  rules  of  conduct.  These  rules  are  usually 
crystallized  into  conventions.  People  who  are  associated  in  any 
definite  enterprise,  or  for  any  purpose,  for  a  length  of  time, 
naturally  discover  what  kind  of  conduct  best  makes  for  the  ends 
of  the  association,  and  out  of  this  recognition  ultimately  grows  a 
set  of  rules  or  conventions,  sometimes  formulated  and  sometimes 
not  formulated,  which  govern  tlie  members  of  the  association. 
In  a  sense  they  enforce  themselves.  Those  who  violate  them 
interfere  with  the  success  of  the  organization  and  are  compelled 
either  to  leave  or  to  conform  to  its  regulations. 

"Such  conventions  not  only  rest  upon  sound  principles,  but 
they  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  smooth  running  of  the 
world's  machinery. 

"The  man  who  steals  does  wrong,  of  course.  He  interferes 
with  his  neighbor's  rights ;  but  the  man,  who,  by  bad  manners, 
disturbes  an  audience  in  a  church  or  lecture-room  or  theatre, 
passengers  in  a  street  car,  or  pedestrians  upon  a  side-walk,  or 
students  in  school,  also  does  wrong.  He  interferes  with  the  right 
of  others  to  the  pursuit  of  happiness  and  to  that  peace  of  mind 
which  is  necessary   to   the   accomplishment  of  the   best   work. 


(M;i)i:i;  27:{ 

'riii>  i>  llic  moral  basis  for  moral  conventions  and  foi'  all  those 
rci;iilalions  uliitli,  uiictht'i-  written  or  unwritten — more  com- 
monly the  latter — are  universally  recoj^nized  as  guides  in  the 
intercourse  of  human  beings.  In  all  cases  their  value  is  tested 
by  their  fitness. 

"In  schools  that  are  really  disorderly  the  trouble  is  usually 
to  be  found  in  one  or  more  of  three  common  conditions:  the  char- 
actt'r  of  the  teacher,  which  may  be  positively  bad,  merely  weak 
and  uiiimi)ressive,  or  ultra-sentimental :  the  character  of  the 
work  re(]uired.  which  may  be  either  u])on  a  low  plane  or  so 
presented  to  the  children  that  they  fail  to  see  the  good  in  it  and 
to  realize  its  worth:  the  enforcement  of  conventions  resting  upon 
no  sound  moral  principle.  The  last  mentioned  has  already  been 
sufliciently  considered. 

"Xatural  tendency  prompts  children  to  seek  to  subvert  the 
will  of  the  martinet  disciplinarian;  openW  if  they  dare,  by  de- 
ception if  they  do  not.  Rigidly  enforced  rules  without  an  evi- 
dent worthy  reason  behind  them  are  fatal  to  character-  in  those 
who  are  s\d)ject  to  them.  A  teacher  should  be  very  slow  in  mak- 
ing rules  and  should  always  ask,  before  promulgating  one.  'Is 
it  absolutely  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  this  society?*  "" 

Mr.  Gilbert  continues  to  say:  "I  desire  to  call  attciition  to 
one  corollary  of  what  has  already  been  said  regarding  moral 
training.  The  use  of  secondary  ends  as  motives  to  conduct  is 
always  to  be  restricted  to  an  immediate  and  pressing  emergency. 
It  should  never  be  a  continuous  part  of  the  school  discipline. 
By  secondary  ends  in  school  I  mean  prizes,  marks,  and  punish- 
ment. The  reasons  are  not  far  to  seek.  They  concern  however, 
the  whole  field  of  ideals.  The  trouble  with  the  world  in  so  far 
as  it  is  wrong  is,  of  course,  that  people  are  pursuing  wrong  ends, 
commonly  minor  or  secondary  ends,  under  the  mistaken  notion 
that  they  are  primary.  People  chase  wealth,  social  position,  and 
political  power  for  themselves  and  so  enter  upon  an  endless  pur- 
suit and  are  never  happy.  These  objects  pursued  are  elusive  be- 
cause they  are  not  real ;  they  are  means  to  ends  and  are  not 
properly  ends  at  all,  or  are  merely  secondary  ends.  We  do  right 
to  wonder  at  the  perversity  of  humanity  in  thus  following  un- 
worthy ends  when  we  see  that  in  most  schools  secondary  ends 
are  held  before  children   until   their  pursuit   beeomcs  habitual. 


271  RELIGIOLS    EDUCATION 

How  can  we  expect  children  who  have  been  taught  to  study  for 
marks  or  prizes  or  to  avoid  punishment,  instead  of  pursuing, 
with  a  live  interest,  knowledge  itself,  to  acquire  a  love  for  truth  ? 
How  can  we  expect  children,  when  they  grow  up,  to  pursue 
social  service  through  the  use  of  available  means  instead  of  pur- 
suing these  means  as  if  they  were  the  ends  themselves?" 

The  Difference  Between  Securing  and  IVIaintaining  Order. 

These  are  two  very  different  operations  and  must  be  carried 
on  in  diverse  ways.  It  is  not  possible  for  a  teacher  taking  charge 
of  a  class  to  secure  Order  at  once  by  the  same  measures  that 
will  be  used  a  little  later  to  maintain  it.  The  teacher  should 
have  the  sympathy  of  each  member  in  the  class,  and  however 
much  discipline  may  be  used,  this  bond  of  sympathy  should  ever 
exist.  Eules  should  be  few ;  but  those  rules  should  be  absolutely 
respected  and  obeyed.  Looseness,  laxness,  and  freedom  are  both 
bad  for  the  pupils  and  destructive  of  confidence  in  the  teacher. 
Firmness  is  admired  by  the  scholars,  while  weakness  and  waver- 
ing are  despised. 
Securing  Order. 

Begin  on  Time.  This  will  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon 
the  conduct  of  the  school  and  the  business  method  of  the  super- 
intendent. As  Dr.  Butler  says:  "The  orderly  officer  begins  on 
time,  and  ends  on  time,  exactly  on  time,  knowing  that  nobody 
else  will  be  on  time  if  he  is  not.  'But  the  organist  has  not 
arrived,'  or  'the  choirmaster  is  absent.'  Well,  what  of  it? 
Shall  we  allow  one  disorderly  man  to  ruin  the  order  of  fifty  or 
three  hundred  pupils?  When  the  tardy  officer  arrives  and  finds 
the  School  in  session,  he  will  need  no  other  rebuke.  Begin  on 
time.  Not  by  banging  the  bell,  or  crying  'Silence.'  If  the 
School  does  not  immediately  obey  the  first  tap  of  the  bell,  and 
you  have  been  superintendent  for  two  months,  blame  yourself, 
not  the  School.  The  worst  thing  to  do  is  to  keep  banging  the 
l)ell,  or  to  tell  the  organist  to  turn  on  the  full  organ.  I  heard 
of  an  officer  who  banged  his  bell  eighteen  times;  but  his  noise 
did  not  produce  silence;  it  never  does." 

Nip  Disorder  in  the  Bud.  Secure  Order  as  soon  as  you 
enter  the  class.  Do  not  wait  for  ten  minutes  or  even  five.  Draw- 
bridge urges:    "Be  quite  determined  and  definite  in  your  own 


ORDER  275 

mind  as  to  what  to  allow  and  what  to  forbid.  Make  it  equally 
clear  to  the  class  exactly  what  they  may  and  may  not  do. 
When  any  boy  seems  inclined  to  overstep  the  bounds  you  have 
drawn,  nip  the  tendency  to  insubordination  in  the  bud,  before 
the  culprit  is  conscious  of  his  tendency  and  before  the  others 
have  noticed  anything  amiss.  Peace  at  any  price  is  sure  to  end 
in  war;  and  to  leave  an  undefined  boundary  between  the  lawful 
and  the  unlawful  will  have  the  same  effect. 

"It  is  necessary  to  keep  one's  eye  free  to  wander  over  the 
class,  and  to  check  by  a  glance  any  disorder.  It  is,  consequently, 
fatal  to  use  voluminous  notes,  or  to  turn  one's  mind's  eye  in- 
ward, upon  the  next  point  of  the  lesson,  instead  of  outward, 
on  the  faces  of  the  class.  This  means  that  the  lesson  must  be 
very  well  prepared.  Every  boy  glances  at  the  teacher's  face  be- 
fore he  misbehaves.  He  looks  to  see,  first,  if  he  is  observed,  and 
secondly,  whether  the  teacher  is  likely  to  interfere." 

Be  Even-handed,  ever  the  same  in  expecting  and  securing 
order.  Again  quoting  Drawbridge :  "The  teacher  must  be  equal 
and  constant  in  his  correction  of  disorder.  He  must  not  be 
fickle.  If  what  enrages  him  one  day  amuses  him  the  next,  or 
if  he  smiles  at  one  boy's  attempt  at  wit,  and  quells  another  boy's 
efforts  to  be  humorous,  he  can  hardly  blame  the  class  if  they 
accuse  him  of  partiality,  injustice,  and  unreasonableness.  The 
teacher's  moods  may  vary,  so  too  may  the  quality  of  the  jokes 
made  by  different  boys,  but  the  class  do  not  study  the  reasons 
for  the  teacher's  apparent  inconsistencies.  Some  teachers  are 
magisterial  one  day  and  over-familiar  the  next,  and  the  third 
day  complain  of  disorder  in  the  class.  Similarly,  a  parent  will 
smile  appreciatively  at  her  child's  naughtiness  or  rudeness,  and 
laughingly  quote  the  rude  speech,  in  the  hearing  of  the  child, 
one  day,  and  beat  the  child  for  the  same  behavior  the  next  day. 
The  natural  result  is  that  she  is  accused  of  injustice,  and  in- 
evitably breeds  fierce  rebellion  in  the  heart  of  her  young  critic. 
It  is  doubtless  very  easy  to  blame  children  for  their  unniliness, 
but  it  is  more  profitable  to  take  some  pains  to  learn  how  to  rule. 
Insubordination  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  implies  ignorance  of 
the  art  of  government  on  the  part  of  the  teacher." 

Be  orderly  yourself.  Drawbridge  says :  "Set  a  good  example. 
If  we  set  at  nought  school  rules,  or  fail  to  answer  at  once  to 


•270  JJKLTGIOUS    EDUCATION 

school  signals,  we  cannot  be  surprised  if  our  pupils  do  the  same, 
and  also  disobey  us,  personally. 

''Then,  again,  self-control  in  the  teacher  iiiliuences  his 
pupils  to  curb  their  unruly  desires.  He  who  has  learned  how  to 
obey  can  teach  what  he  has  himself  learned  ;  and  only  the  prac- 
tice of  self-restraint  can  ena})le  one  to  inculcate  that  virtue  in 
others." 

"Be  cheerful  and  (jood-humored,  and  put  the  class  in  a  good 
humour,'"  says  Drawbridge.  Frequenlly  a  joke  has  averted  a 
riot.  Not  a  display  of  force  and  anger,  but  the  exercise  of  tact 
and  sympathy,  is  what  is  needed.  The  management  of  a  restive 
class,  and  the  control  of  a  fresh  horse,  have  many  points  of  re- 
semblance. In  each  case  a  gentle  woman's  hand  can  often 
achieve  what  no  display  of  force  and  violence  would  ever  accom- 
plish. The  latter  may  drive  in  the  symptoms  of  unrest  and  dis- 
order, the  former  alone  can  win  over  the  spirit  and  the  will,  and 
secure  the  desired  disposition.  Children  prefer  order,  if  they 
are  managed  with  patience,  knowledge,  and  tact,  but  if  the 
(restive  horse,  or)  child  once  gets  out  of  hand,  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  undo  the  mischief  which  has  resulted  from  one's  weak- 
ness. 

Appeal  to  the  best  motives  of  your  pupils,  and  trust  to  their 
higher  instincts.  Drawbridge  says  with  regard  to  this:  ''In  one 
of  our  great  manufacturing  cities,  the  police  frequently  had  to 
call  in  the  aid  of  a  vicar  to  quell  disorders  in  the  slums.  When 
force  had  failed,  the  police  turned  to  the  parson  for  the  exer- 
cise of  his  influence.  This  effeminate  and  mild-mannered  ec- 
clesiastic appeared  upon  the  scene  of  disorder,  not  only  as  a  man 
of  God,  but  also  as  a  well-tried  friend,  whose  disinterested  and 
self-sacrificing  labours  for  the  people  carried  more  weight  than 
the  respect  due  to  liis  office.  Moreover  he  knew  each  man's 
home,  and  consequently  was  in  a  position  to  appeal  to  that  side 
of  each  individual  whicli  Avas  most  susceptible  of  influence. 
The  teacher  should  adopt  the  same  methods.  Love  the  children, 
and  thus  win  their  affection.  Deserve  respect,  and  thus  secure 
it.  Know  each  child  individually,  and  also  his  home  life.  It  is 
worth  while  to  have  the  home  influence  of  every  child  on  one's 
side." 

Of  course,  each  pupil  requires  its  own  individual  and  per- 


oliDKll  277 

sonal  kind  of  maiiafjcmcnt.  It  is  wise  to  appeal  to  the  heart 
of  tile  one,  to  tlie  sense  of  riglit  of  anotlier,  to  the  love  of  order 
in  a  thii-(l.  to  the  religious  feelings  of  a  fourth,  and  to  the  sense 
of  shame  in  a  liftli.  Love,  sympathy,  (aet,  patience,  knowledge, 
all  ari'  necessary. 

J'J.vpvrt  h)  he  obci/ed — '"J'hey  can  conquer  who  believe  they 
can.""  If  you  have  no  confidence  in  yourself,  do  not  make  a 
pai-ade  of  your  weakness  before  the  class. 

The  following  anecdote  M'ill  illustrate  this  most  important 
consideration:  At  a  clerical  meetiiig,  a  very  aged  clergyman  told 
a  story  of  his  early  childliood.  lie  said,  "The  gardener  once  ac- 
cused me,  to  my  mother,  of  having  done  something  wrong, 
^ly  mother  looked  me  in  the  face  and  said  to  my  accuser,  'No. 
I  am  sure  blaster  John  could  not  have  done  such  a  thing.'  He 
added,  "But  1  had  done  it,  you  know."  "'  lie  went  on  to  say  that 
he  had  never  forgotten  the  lesson  he  learned  that  day.  All 
thi-ough  his  life,  he  had  tried  to  follow  her  wise  method  of  re- 
buke. Show  children  that  you  expect  much  of  them,  and  they 
will  not  disappoint  you.  We  all  live  up  to  the  estimate  whicli 
others  have  of  us;  and  those  who  expect  much  of  others  are  not 
disappointed. 

Agencies  for  Keeping  Order. 

{(t)  ('oKKt'ivE  AoiiNCiES.  Such  are  those  that  endeavor  to 
coni})el  the  will  of  the  child.  All  punishments  and  the  mere 
dominating  will-power  of  the  teacher,  which  later  borders  on 
hy])notic  control  or  personal  force,  are  the  lowest  forms  of  con- 
trol: external,  negative,  and  the  least  effective.  The  child  so 
inlluenced  lacks  spontaneity  and  executive  activity.  Hughes 
says:  '"Teachei-s  should  try  to  realize  the  terribly  destructive  in- 
fluence on  character  exerted  by  frequently  repeating  violations 
of  rules,  even  in  regard  to  matters  that  are  in  themselves,  or  in 
their  direct  results,  comparatively  trifling.  Our  actions  indi- 
cate what  we  are,  because  our  actions  are  the  expression  of  the 
present  condition  of  our  mental  and  moral  natures.  Actions 
repeated  confirm  habits  of  similar  actions.  Our  acts  mould  our 
characters  because  they  decide  whether  conscience  and  will  in- 
crease or  decrease  in  clearness  and  power.  Ten  years  in  a  school 
where  rules  may  be  violated,  where  the  consequences  of  breaking 


278  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

a  rule  are  estimated  by  their  effects  on  the  discipline  of  the  school 
instead  of  their  influence  in  destroying  character,  will  endanger 
a  boy's  prospects  in  time  and  eternity.  Disrespect  for  rules  in 
the  pupil  leads  to  disregard  for  law  in  the  citizen,  and  disregard 
for  the  laws  of  men  leads  to  indiiierence  to  the  laws  of  God. 
When  teachers  realize  this  truth,  no  honest  teacher  will  con- 
tinue in  the  profession  without  keeping  order. 

"If  a  rule  cannot  be  enforced  through  weakness  of  any  kind 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  (and  the  primary  cause  of  all  such 
failure  is  weakness  in  the  teacher),  it  is  much  better  that  no 
such  rule  should  be  made.  Making  a  rule  does  not  improve  dis- 
cipline. The  rule  must  be  enforced,  to  produce  the  desired  re- 
sult. So  far  as  discipline  is  concerned,  the  school  will  be  no 
better  with  a  rule  that  is  not  executed  than  it  would  be  without 
the  rule.  The  discipline  will  be  as  bad  in  the  one  case  as  in  the 
other;  but  in  the  first  case  the  pupils  will  be  committing  sin, 
and  in  the  second  they  will  not.  Weak,  indifferent  teachers  are 
guilty,  because  they  give  a  definite  training  calculated  to  destroy 
character.  Character  is  the  best  gift  of  God  to  a  child.  The 
school  should  be  the  best  place  in  the  world,  except  a  good  home, 
to  discipline  and  cultivate  character-power,  the  conscience  and 
will;  but  the  disorderly  school,  in  which  the  teacher  has  not 
power  to  inspire  or  compel  respectful  cooperative  submission 
to  authority  dissipates  instead  of  develops  the  essentials  of  true 
character. 

"Eules  may  be  made  in  two  ways ;  by  the  teacher  alone,  with- 
out conferring  with  the  pupils;  or  by  the  teacher  and  pupils, 
after  consultation.  It  is  easier  to  execute  'our'  rules,  than 
'my'  rules.  The  teacher  should  be  a  constitutional  ruler,  not 
a  tyrant.  With  an  earnest,  competent  teacher  pujiils  never  try 
to  make  improper  rules.  All  the  people  should  take  an  intelli- 
gent part  in  moulding  the  laws  of  a  nation.  Society  is  on  a 
wrong  basis  if  men  think  they  do  their  duty  by  merely  submit- 
ting to  law.  There  is  no  more  development  in  the  truest  free- 
dom than  in  tyranny  unless  men  exercise  the  rights  of  citizen- 
ship. Assisting  intelligently  in  making  rules  or  laws  is  the 
surest  way  to  develop  respect  for  law,  and  the  fullest  positive 
submission  to  law.  We  should  submit  to  constituted  authority 
consciously,  on  principle;  not  from  habit,  or  negatively  from 


ORDER  27!) 

fear  of  the  consequences.  'IMic  best  training  in  political  econ- 
omy is  the  practical  training  of  a  well-governed  school,  in  which 
(he  pupils  practise  the  duties  of  good  citizenship.  The  teacher 
who  cannot  trust  his  pupils  to  aid  in  making  rules  is  clearly 
unfitted  for  his  work.  Such  a  teacher  can  do  little  to  train  the 
characters  of  his  pupils,  and  therefore  must  fail  in  his  most  im- 
portant duty. 

"The  making  of  rules  is,  however,  of  comparatively  little  im- 
))ortanco  compared  with  their  execution.  Whichever  plan  may 
1)0  adopted  for  making  the  rules,  they  will  be  certain  to  weaken 
the  character  of  every  pupil  attending  the  school  if  they  are  not 
executed  justly  and  definitely.  In  executing  the  rules  of  a 
school  the  teacher  should  often  be  merciful;  but,  so  far  as  the 
pupils  are  concerned,  he  must  be  supreme.  When  questions  of 
authority  are  involved,  he  must  be  as  uncompromising  as  the 
Deacon  who  said  to  his  neighbor  with  whom  he  had  a  dispute: 
'I  have  prayed  earnestly  over  this  matter,  and  I  have  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  you  must  give  in ;  for  I  cannot.' 

"In  advanced  classes,  it  is  most  beneficial  both  to  the  disci- 
pline of  the  school  and  in  training  the  pupils  for  the  duties  of 
citizenship,  to  have  some  adaptation  of  the  system  of  trial  by 
jury  practised  in  deciding  the  guilt  of  offenders  who  violate  the 
rules  of  the  school.  The  teacher,  in  such  a  case,  would  repre- 
sent the  judge.  A  committee  of  pupils  may  sometimes  award 
punishment  for  offences,  the  teacher  being  a  court  of  appeal,  to 
which  application  may  be  made  to  have  the  decision  of  the  com- 
mittee set  aside  or  modified." 

Rules.  Some  of  these,  such  as  fear,  etc.  have  been  already 
considered  in  the  chapter  on  Instincts.  According  to  what  Mr. 
Grout  says  of  the  best  way  to  gain  and  keep  control  of  pupils, 
with  the  older  pupils  the  opening  day  is  most  important.  Begin 
with  the  assurance  of  success  firmly  fixed  in  your  own  mind,  or  in 
as  near  that  state  of  mind  as  possible.  One  who  enters  the  room 
timidly  and  deprecatingly  is  bound  to  have  trouble,  and  that 
soon.  Even  if  you  cannot  help  "shaking  in  your  shoes,"  use  all 
your  powers  of  self-control  to  appear  unconcerned  and  as  fa- 
miliar with  first  days  as  with  your  breakfast.  Every  eye  is  on 
vou  for  the  first  few  hours  and  days,  to  see  of  what  stuff  you 
are  made,  and  just  as  soon  as  the  shyness  of  novelty  has  worn  off, 


2S0  rvKMOIOlS    ICDICATIOX 

if  not  sooiK'i',  .-oinc  irr('S])()nsil)l('  person  will  "!)()  it  jusl  to  see 
w'liat  teacher  will  do."  If  you  liesitale  then  you  are  lost — I'or  the 
time  at  least.  Do  sotnclliin<i'  yourself  and  do  it  quickly,  so 
quickly  as  to  take  away  llie  hrcatli  of  the  insurgent."  ]\Ir. 
(Jrout  eo7itinues  to  say  that  '"1  find  that  hoys  more  often  need 
shar]),  sliort  checks  than  girls,  as  girls  are  naturally  more  tract- 
ahle  than  hoys.  But  a  hoy  rarely  hears  ill-will  toward  a  teacher 
for  giving  him  his  deserts,  while  a  girl's  sense  of  justice  is  much 
less  keen,  and  slu>  nuiy  hear  a  long  grudge  for  a  puuishuienl  that 
was  eminently  fair  aiid  just.  A  great  deal  of  care  can  he  used 
to  advantage  in  punishing  gii'ls,  as  they  are  very  sensitive  to 
ridicule,  and  a  i-e])riinand  that  will  only  make  a  hoy  grin  sheep- 
ishly will  often  juove  a  gii'l  to  Icai's  ami  a  long  ])eriod  of  sulks. 

"Avoid  as  you  would  the  Kvil  One  himself  any  appearance 
of  personal  vengeance,  or  even  of  ])urely  retrihutive  punishment. 
Strive  in  every  way  to  show  tluit  your  punishments  are  to  pre- 
vent future  offen.ses,  not  to  'pay  up,'  for  ])ast  misdeeds." 

(h)  Executive  Aoexcies.  These  are  hetter.  (Jive  the 
child  something  to  do.  Hold  his  attention  and  interest  hy  pro- 
viding some  direct  outlet  to  his  self-activity,  either  physical  and 
manual  or  mental.  The  will  of  the  scholar  learns  to  yield  will- 
ingly, almost  unconsciously,  to  the  will  of  the  teacher.  This 
hahit  gains  hy  practice  just  as  other  hahits  do.  Tt  is  ahsolutely 
impossihle  for  disorder  to  exist  in  a  class  where  each  pupil  has 
some  definite  work.  Projier  attention  should  he  given,  even  in 
a  Sunday  School  (Hass  held  in  pews  of  a  church,  to  ]K)sture,  so 
that  children  sit  upright,  not  lounging  listlessly,  which  produces 
disorder  by  the  \ory  attitude  assumed,  "^riie  position  of  each 
scholar  with  regard  to  the  teacher  is  also  significant.  Each  child 
should  face  the  teacher,  being  seen  and  seeing  at  all  times,  and 
not  merely  when  individually  reciting.  The  eye  of  the  teacher 
shoiild  take  in  every  child  with  (Uie  sweep.  Concert  work,  /.  e., 
answering,  reciting,  or  reading  together,  all  the  class  at  once,  is 
excellent  for  gaining  order  at  first.  This  is  not  always  practical, 
where  more  than  one  class  occupies  the  room  ;  for,  of  course, 
the  only  way  to  uphold  the  Order  of  the  whole  School  is  that 
each  class,  as  well  as  each  child,  should  remember  Order. 

Dew(>y  says:  "The  question  of  method  is  ultimately  reduci- 
ble to  the  question  of  the  order  of  development  of  the  child's 


(tKDEll  2S1 

])()\voi's  and  intcrcsls.  'I'lic  law  for  presenting  and  treating  ma- 
tei-inl  is  the  law  implicit  within  the  child's  own  nature.  Be- 
cause this  is  so  the  roilowing  statements  are  of  supreme  import- 
ance as  determining  the  spirit  in  which  education  is  carried  on: 

'*'l'he  active  side  pi'eeedes  the  passive  in  the  deveh)pnient  of 
the  cliiid-nalui'e ;  the  I'Xpression  comes  befoi'e  conscious  impres- 
sion: till'  nniscular  development  ])recedes  the  sensory;  the  niove- 
nieiils  come  itefore  consci(nis  sensations;  consciousness  is  essen- 
liaily  moloi-  ov  im])ulsive:  and  conscious  states  tend  to  project 
themselves  in  ailioii.  'I'lie  neglect  of  this  ])rinci])le  is  the  cause 
of  a  large  ])art  of  the  wasti'  of  time  and  strength  in  school  work." 

According  to  Ifughes:  "All  executive  agencies,  in  addition 
to  their  direct  inlluenci'  on  order,  lunc  a  most  impoi'lant  redex 
action  in  the  formation  of  charactei'.  We  cannot  perform  an  act 
definitely  without  fii'st  having  a  delinite  action  of  the  mind. 
Energetic  will-action  produces  correspondingly  vigorous  muscu- 
lar ett'ort ;  indefinite  action  of  the  will  produces  corresponding 
feebleness  of  bodily  movement.  The  nature  of  our  habitual  ex- 
ternal manifestations,  walking,  gestures,  etc.,  indicates  the 
character  of  our  executive  development.  It  is  clear,  therefore, 
thai  by  insisting  on  energetic  and  definite  action  in  drill,  calis- 
thenics, and  all  school  movements,  we  are  taking  the  most  cer- 
tain possible  course  for  making  our  pupils  energetic  and  definite 
in  character,  because  we  ai'c  making  energetic  and  definite  will- 
action  habitual."" 

The  Chapter  on  Manual  Work  that  follows  towards  the  end 
of  this  book  suggests  a  great  many  helj)fid  jxnnts  in  the  line  of 
executive  agencies. 

(c)  Incentive  Agencies.  The  ultimate  aim  of  all  disci- 
pline is  to  render  a  person  self-controlling.  Even  external  re- 
straint should  end  in  independent  powers.  So  long  as  discipline 
has  to  ])c  exercised  from  without,  no  child  is  in  the  condition  to 
do  his  best  work.  He  acts  under  restraint.  It  is  only  when  con- 
trol woi'ks  within  outward,  that  the  progress  of  any  person  can 
be  secured,  '^riierefore  incentive  agencies  are  the  best.  Interest 
is,  of  course,  the  very  highest,  for  it  is,  as  we  shall  soon  see,  the 
spontaneous  outgoing  of  the  child's  own  imj)ulses  and  desires. 
There  is  no  question  of  Order  or  Disorder,  where  the  right  sort 
of  Interest  is  active.    Hence  in  modern  Day  Schools,  where  the 


282  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

true  ideas  of  Interest  prevail,  the  factor  of  Order  and  its  Ineeu- 
tives  has  practically  disappeared. 

The  most  effective  Internal  or  Incentive  Agencies,  beyond 
natural  Interest,  are  the  Motives,  good  or  bad,  as  they  may  be. 
When  the  child  becomes  a  man,  his  progress  in  his  life  and  his 
usefulness  to  society  will  depend  largely  on  the  kind  and  force 
of  his  motives.  Some  men  fail  from  want  of  motives;  but  the 
majority  who  fail  do  so  because  they  do  not  exercise  the  good 
ones  they  possess.  It  is  the  inculcation  and  education  and  train- 
ing, by  practice,  of  good  and  high  motives  or  ideals  in  life,  that 
is  the  Teacher's  chief  aim  in  all  teaching.  At  first,  we  suggest 
motives;  but  as  children  grow  older,  they  originate  motives 
themselves. 

Dewey  says:  "Interests  are  the  signs  and  symptoms  of  grow- 
ing power.  I  believe  that  they  represent  dawning  capacities. 
Accordingly  the  constant  and  careful  observation  of  interests  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  for  the  educator.  These  instincts  are 
to  be  observed  as  showing  the  state  of  development  which  the 
child  has  reached.  They  prophesy  the  stage  upon  which  he  is 
about  to  enter.  Only  through  the  continual  and  sympathetic 
observation  of  childhood's  interests  can  the  adult  enter  into  the 
child's  life  and  sec  what  it  is  ready  for,  and  upon  what  material 
it  could  work  most  readily  and  fruitfully. 

"These  interests  are  neither  to  be  humored  nor  repressed. 
To  repress  interest  is  to  substitute  the  adult  for  the  child,  and  so 
to  weaken  intellectual  curiosity  and  alertness,  to  suppress  ini- 
tiative, and  to  deaden  interest.  To  humor  the  interests  is  to  sub- 
stitute the  transient  for  the  permanent.  The  interest  is  always 
the  sign  of  some  power  below ;  the  important  thing  is  to  discover 
this  power.  To  humor  the  interest  is  to  fail  to  penetrate  below 
the  surface,  and  its  sure  result  is  to  substitute  caprice  and  whim 
for  genuine  interest." 
Restlessness  the  Cause  of  Disorder. 

Drawbridge  says  in  regard  to  the  above :  "One  of  the  great- 
est difficulties  that  has  to  be  faced,  by  all  who  have  to  deal  with 
children,  is  their  excessive  restlessness.  They  seem  to  find  it 
impossible  to  sit  still.  Hands,  legs,  heads,  eyes,  bodies — all 
seem  to  exemplify  that  myth  of  the  ancient  philosophers — per- 
petual motion.     TTow  is  this  annoying  trait  to  be  combated? 


ORDER  283 

"The  scieutiiic  remedy  is,  not  to  forcibly  drive  in  the  symp- 
toms, but  to  diagnose  the  comphiint  and  deal  with  the  cause. 
Why  are  young  peoj)le  restless?  This  tendency  of  theirs  is  Na- 
ture's method  of  encouraging  exercise,  and  thus  ensuring  devel- 
opment. It  is  a  mistake  to  run  counter  to  Nature  and  restrain 
the  healthy  activity  of  children.  The  wise  teacher  relies  upon 
it  to  ensure  the  effort  necessary  to  acquire  knowledge.  If  a 
child's  body  is  restless  it  is  because  no  one  has  found  him  suffi- 
cient employment  for  his  mind.  A  cliild  cannot  sit  still  for  five 
minutes  while  an  adult  pours  forth  a  stream  of  words.  God  has 
made  the  young  active,  and  they  cannot  remain  passive  without 
running  counter  to  their  natural  instincts,  and  violating  God's 
law.  The  best  way  of  utilizing  the  energies  of  children  is  to  set 
them  to  work  answering  questions.  These  should  bo  difficult 
enough  to  require  hard  thinking,  and  yet  sufficiently  easy  to  re- 
ward the  pupil's  efforts  with  success. 

"Restlessness  is  energy  running  to  waste.  It  is  a  fault,  not 
in  the  child,  but  in  him  who  ought  to  be  employing  the  pupil's 
energy  usefully.  When  being  artistically  questioned  in  school, 
or  when  poring  over  a  puzzle  in  their  play  time,  children  are 
absolutely  still  physically.  They  have  no  superfluous  energy  to 
waste  in  fidgeting.  The  most  active  child  has  no  superfluous 
activity,  all  its  powers  are  concentrated  upon  the  mental  effort  in 
which  it  is  engrossed.  W^hcn  a  Sunday  School  class  is  inclined 
to  let  off  steam — so  to  speak — in  unlawful  ways,  the  remedy  is 
(not  to  sit  upon  the  safety  valve,  but)  to  turn  the  steam  on  to 
the  mental  machinery,  which  turns  out  ideas.  In  other  words, 
a  restless  class  is  one  that  is  more  than  ready  to  do  justice  to  the 
questioning  exercise.  All  teaching  necessitates  the  co-work  of 
the  pupil,  because  there  can  be  no  teaching  where  there  is  no 
learning;  learning  is  an  absorbing  and  healthy  exercise,  which 
uses  up  all  the  child's  energies.  If  it  does  not  do  so,  the  fault 
lies  with  the  teacher,  who  is  allowing  force  to  run  to  waste. 
Thus,  to  blame  the  unfortunate  pupil  for  fidgeting  is  to  add  in- 
sult to  injury. 

"The  same  applies  to  all  bad  behavior  of  the  noisy  and  mis- 
chievous kind.  'Satan  finds  some  mischief  still  for  idle  hands 
to  do.'  Or  as  someone  else  expresses  it:  'The  devil  tempts  a 
busy  person — but  an  idle  person  tempts  the  devil.'    Useful  em- 


:i84  i;i;li(;|()1  s  kdication 

plovinciii,  I'iither  than  unjust  ])unislinH'nt,  i.s  the  scientific 
remedy   for  misapplied  activity.'' 

In  assigning  lessons,  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  make  certain 
individuals  responsible  for  certain  (piestions,  or  parts  of  ques- 
tions, assigned  to  them  in  advance,  'i'his  is  necessary  where  time 
is  liinited,  and  wliere  search  for  illustrations  is  called  for. 

Some  of  the  (|ucstions  are  too  comi)rehensive  in  character 
to  be  dealt  with  in  the  time  between  two  lessons.  It  is  suggested 
that  at  the  beginning  of  the  course  such  questions  be  assigned 
to  individuals  as  special  topics,  to  be  reported  on  at  convenience. 

Written  examinations  at  the  close  of  the  course  will  be 
found  both  instructive  and  interesting.  tSuch  examinations  are 
strongly  advised.  Questions  for  examination  may  be  framed  by 
the  Kcetor  or  Teacher  forming  (juestions.  In  conducting  ex- 
aminations it  is  a  goo<l  ])hrn  to  assign  examination  numbers, 
which  will  serve  to  identify  the  papers,  the  name  of  the  student 
appearing  on  no  part  of  the  paper. 

Emotions  as  Incentives  to  Order. 

In  suggesting  motives  as  Incentives  to  Order,  the  teacher 
should  show  great  wisdom  and  care,  that  they  may  be  appro- 
priate to  the  moral  development  of  the  children.  ''The  surest 
way,"  says  Hughes,  "to  destroy  sincerity  and  develop  hypocrisy 
and  formalism  is  to  try  to  make  little  children  assume  that  they 
are  fully  developed  Christians.'' 

All  of  these  motives  have  been  fully  considered  in  the  Chap- 
ter on  Instincts.  Hughes  says :  "Fear,  Love  of  Praise,  Ambition, 
Emulation,  Competition,  Pride,  and  the  Desire  to  Please,  have 
disadvantages  as  well  as  advantages.  All  the  others  are  decidedly 
beneficial  in  their  influence  on  character. 

"The  same  motives  will  not  equally  influence  all  pupils. 
Motives  should  therefore  be  varied.  The  motives  first  named 
should  be  used  as  little  as  possible.  They  may  be  exceedingly 
useful,  however,  in  starting  pupils  to  work  earnestly;  and  ear- 
nest work  is  the  surest  means  of  lifting  a  human  being,  of  any 
age,  to  a  higher  moral  sphere. 

"When  fixing  motives  for  the  guidance  of  pupils  through  life, 
the  teacher  is  doing  his  grandest  work.  In  selecting  motives  he 
should  be  guided  by  the  following  considerations:   (1)  Do  they 


<>i;i)i:i{  285 

devcloj)  spoiilaneity  of  eha racier?  (2)  Do  they  make  pupils 
self-rc'liaiit,  williout  weakcnin^^  their  consciousness  of  depend- 
ence on  CJody  (."))  Do  lliev  make  men  selllsh,  or  do  they  widen 
tiieir  sympathies  and  increase  liicii-  love  for  humanity  and  (Jod? 

"'I'lie  (inal  te>l  of  a  pei'iiianciiL  motive  is — Does  it  leail  to 
in(K'|)endence  of  character,  sutlicient  to  deveh)])  our  indivi(hial- 
ity  as  perfectly  as  (iod  ijdeiuK'd  it  to  he  developed,  without  de- 
stroyiufi'  our  sym])athy  for  oui-  fellow-men,  or  weakenint;-  our 
faith  in  (Iod?  The  hest  motiv'es  art'  not  nu'rely  ineffectual,  they 
are  injurious,  if  they  are  aroused  without  producing  their  in- 
Ii'iuled  result  in  action." 

^\r.  (iilhert  remarks:  '\Some  form  of  productive  work, 
whether  with  ])en,  pencil,  hrush.  scissors  and  i)aper,  or  carpen- 
ter's tools,  is  tile  indivi(hud"s  chance.  1 1  coinpels  mental  activity  ; 
it  assures  at  least  some  learniiii;-.  It  also  discloses  to  the  teacher 
the  pupil's  mental  state.  The  Hung  portrayed  or  made  often 
speaks  much  more  plainly  of  the  state  of  mind  than  the  spoken 
words;  though  of  course  all  these  forms  of  reaction  must  be 
stimulated  and  utilized." 

Pupils  Innately  Disorderly. 

"There  are  two  classes  of  disorderly  pupils;  rebels  and  non- 
rebels, ""  says  Hughes.  Teachers  need  have  very  little  trouble 
from  rebels,  because  there  are  very  few  of  them,  and  because 
they  should  speedily  be  made  to  submit,  or  else  be  suspended 
from  school  till  they  are  ready  to  render  willing  obedience. 
\A'hen  a  boy  delinitely  defies  his  teacher  by  refusing  to  do  what 
he  is  told,  or  by  deliberately  doing  what  has  been  clearly  pro- 
hibited, he  forfeits  his  right  to  attend  school ;  and  if  reasoning 
or  ])uni>hment  of  a  reasonahle  kind  does  not  make  him  submit 
properly,  he  should  be  sent  fi'om  I  he  school  until  the  influence 
of  his  parents,  or  some  other  means,  has  made  him  thoroughly 
submissive.  He  should  tiien  be  re-adnutted  only  after  a  public 
apology  for  his  insubordiiuition,  and  a  satisfactory  promise  of 
submission  in  future.  One  such  course  of  disci])line,  given 
calmly  by  the  teacher,  will  usually  suljdue  a  rcheh  lU'hels  should 
cause  hut  liltle  troidde. 

"Those  who  are  not  rebels  nuiy  be  divided  into  the  careful 
and  definite,  and  the  careless  and  irregular.    The  great  difliculty 


286  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

of  discipline  (■(unes  from  the  careless  and  irregular;  and  the 
chief  duty  of  the  teacher,  so  far  as  discipline  is  concerned,  is  to 
,2:ive  them  hahits  of  order  and  defmiteness." 

Penalties. 

Hughes  adds  regarding  the  above:  "It  is  unwise  to  fix  a 
(l('(!i)ilo  and  unvarying  penalty  for  the  same  offense,  on  all  occa- 
sions aiul  under  all  circumstances.  So  far  as  possible,  inten- 
tional wrong-doing,  or  evil  that  results  from  carelessness,  should 
he  followed  by  certain  punishment  of  a  positive  or  negative  kind. 
Nothing  weakens  a  child's  character,  and  his  respect  for  law, 
(]uicker  than  the  feeling  that  wrong  may  be  done  with  impunity. 
The  attaching  of  fixed  penalti(>s  for  all  offences  helps  to  remove 
the  danger  of  partiality  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  but  it  pre- 
vents the  exercise  of  his  judgment  in  the  administration  of 
justice." 
Disorderly  Teachers. 

Disorderly  Teachers  are  those  (1)  "Whose  standard  of 
order  is  low,  and  who  do  not  recognize  the  true  value  of  order  in 
the  development  of  character,"  says  Hughes.  "Men  cannot  rise 
above  their  own  standards,  and  they  cannot  lift  others  above  the 
standards  they  fix  for  themselves.  (2)  Those  who  think  it 
^easiest  to  keep  poor  order.'  They  are  usually  dishonest  weak- 
lings who  cannot  keep  order,  and  who  wish  to  conceal  their  weak- 
ness. (3)  Those  who  allow  the  pupils  to  think  that  submission 
is  a  compliment  to  the  teacher.  Order  is  not  maintained  for  the 
teacher's  benefit,  yet  thousands  of  teachers  speak  and  act  as  if 
they  keep  order  for  their  own  advantage.  (4)  Those  who  think 
children  like  disorder.  Children  enjoy  being  controlled,  much 
better  than  having  their  own  way.  It  is  natural  to  prefer  order 
to  anarchy.  Children  respect  the  teacher  most  who  secures  the 
best  order  by  proper  means.  (5)  Those  who  know  the  value  of 
order,  and  know  that  they  do  not  keep  good  order,  but  who  do 
not  make  any  conscious  effort  to  increase  their  power  to  control, 
or  to  improve  their  methods  of  discipline.  There  are  thousands 
of  teachers  who  realize  their  weakness  without  using  the  means 
available  to  them  for  development.  (6)  Those  who  say  'Disci- 
plinary power  is  a  natural  gift,'  and  on  this  account  justify  their 
lack  of  effort.     (7)   Those  who  try  to  stop  disorder  by  ringing  a 


ORDER  287 

ht'll,  striking  the  desk,  stain])iiig  the  floor,  etc.  A  single  ring  of 
a  bell,  or  a  gentle  tap  on  the  desk,  may  be  a  time-signal  for 
commencing  or  closing  work,  for  changing  the  exercises,  or  for 
keeping  time  in  very  long  classes,  to  fix  the  conception  of  ryth- 
mic movement;  but  no  general  signals  or  commands  should  be 
given  for  order.  The  teacher  who  gives  them  by  bell  or  tongue 
is  a  novice  in  government,  whatever  may  be  his  age.  He  causes 
much  more  inattention  and  disorder  than  lie  cures.  Such  sig- 
nals for  order  must  be  hannful,  as  children  soon  cease  to  pay 
attention  to  them.  (8)  Those  who  themselves  are  noisy  and 
demonstrative.  Blustering  does  not  produce  calmness.  It  is  a 
blunder  to  attempt  to  drowTi  disorder  by  making  more  noise  than 
the  pupils  are  making.  Bedlam  is  the  result.  (9)  Those  who 
speak  in  a  high  key.  A  high-pitched  voice  is  exhaustive  to  the 
teacher  and  irritating  to  pupils.  (10)  Those  who  roll  their 
eyes,  but  do  not  see.  Seeing  is  an  act  of  the  2iiind.  Teachers, 
more  than  any  other  class,  should  cultivate  the  power  to  pay 
distributed  attention,  and  see  every  pupil  at  the  same  time. 
(11)  Those  who  hurry.  Haste  rarely  produces  speed,  and  always 
leads  to  disorder.  (12)  Those  who  do  not  see  any  use  in  being 
'so  particular  about  trifles.'  Nothing  that  influences  character 
should  be  regarded  as  trifling  or  unimportant.  (13)  Those  who 
have  order  only  while  they  are  in  the  room.  Such  teachers  main- 
tain order  exclusively  by  coercive  means,  and  therefore  fail  to 
secure  the  grandest  possible  effect  of  discipline,  the  development 
of  self-control  in  the  pupils.  (14)  Those  who  believe  in  lectur- 
ing their  classes.  Formal  lecturing  on  morals  or  duty  does  little 
good  to  any  pupil,  and  it  injures  a  great  many  by  giving  them  a 
dislike  for  that  which  is  good.  (15)  Those  who  have  not  sufficient 
w'ill-power  to  insist  on  obedience,  even  against  the  will  of  their 
pupils.  'Do  you  always  do  what  mamma  tells  you?'  said  a 
visiting  minister  to  a  little  girl.  'Yes,  I  guess  I  do,  and  so  does 
papa,'  was  the  reply.  (16)  Those  who  get  angry  and  scold  or 
threaten  when  executing  the  law.  The  teacher  has  no  need  to  get 
angry.  He  represents  the  majesty  of  the  law.  Anger  destroys 
dignity,  and  many  pupils  lose  their  respect  for  law  itself  because 
their  teachers  administer  law  in  an  undignified  manner.  Scold- 
ing distracts  attention,  and  therefore  causes  disorder.  Like 
scolding,  threatening  soon  becomes  a  habit,  and  soon  loses  its 


:^«S  RELIGIOLS   EDUCATION 

influence  as  a  restraining  power.  Therefore,  anger  with  the 
resultant  scolding  or  threatening  of  the  child  should  he  avoided 
nnder  all  circumstances  by  the  teacher." 

Anger. 

Truiidnill  says:  "Here  is  a  rule  which,  strictly  speaking, 
knows  no  exception;  yet  as  a  matter  of  fact,  probably  nine-tenths 
of  all  the  punishing  of  children  that  is  done  by  ])arents  in  this 
world  is  done  in  anger.  And  this  is  one  of  the  wrongs  suffered 
by  children  through  the  wrong-doing  of  their  ])arents. 

"Anger  is  hot  blood.  Anger  is  passion.  Anger  is,  for  the 
time  being,  a  controlling  emotion,  fixing  the  mind's  eye  on  the 
one  point  against  which  it  is  specifically  directed,  to  the  forget- 
fulness  of  all  else.  But  punishment  is  a  judicial  act,  calling  for 
a  clear  mind  and  a  cool  head,  and  a  fair  considering  of  every  side 
of  the  case  in  hand.  Anger  is  inconsistent  with  the  exercise  of 
the  judicial  faculty;  therefore  no  person  is  com])etent  to  judge 
fairly  while  angry." 

QUESTIONS   FOR   TIIOUGFIT   AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  Wliat  do  you  lind  your  main  difficulty  in  keeping  Order? 

2.  Of  what  plans  have  you  been  making  use  to  secure  Order? 

3.  What  ill  effects  liave  you  ever  noted  from  your  own  use  of  improper 

agencies  to  secure  and  keep  Order? 

4.  At  what  age  do  you  find  children  most  unruly?    Can  you  saj'  why? 

5.  \Miat  are  said  to  be  tlie  best  methods  to  use  in  Order? 


OHAPI^ER  XV. 

THE   ART    OF    SECURING    ATTENTION. 

si(i(:i:s'i'i:i)  I{i:ai)I\(;s. 
Attention: 

*Tiii:  Art  of  Teaching.     Fitch,     pp.  lOlff. 
•The  Aut  of  Seciki.ng  Attentio.n.     Fitch. 
*Talk.s  to  Teacheus.     Jdtnes.     pp.  lOO-llJj. 
Up  Through  Childhood.     Ilnhbell.     pp.  15.5/f. 
The  Foundath).\s  of  IOdication.     Seeley. 
♦The  Teacher  That  Teaches.     yVcUa.     p.  20. 
Talks  With  the  Traini.ng  Class.     Slattcry.     p.  53. 
*Pedago(hcal  Kiule  School.     Ha.'^lctt.     pp".   112-135. 
New  I'sychology.     Gordy.     pp.   130/f. 
Sunday  School  Science.     Ilolmcu.     pp.  .'Jl^O. 
•How  to  Hold  Attention.    Huyhes. 

I'svcHOLOGY  and  Psycuic  CULTURE.     Hallcck.     Chapter  II. 
The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.     Gregory,    pp.  29-46. 
Fatigue: 

•Study  of  Children.     Warner,     pp.  137-153,  212,  236. 
Educational  Review.     J.inuary.   1898.     Baker. 
Pedagogical  Se.minary  Mag.,  I'iurnham.     2,  pp.  13-17. 
The  Physical  N.\ture  of  the  Child.     Roice. 

How  to  Hold  Attention. 

Inseparably  interwoven  with  order  and  interest  (which  we 
will  consider  in  the  next  chapter)  is  the  question  of  Attention. 
To  say  that  a  subject  is  interesting  is  but  another  way  to  say  that 
it  excites  attention. 

Kinds  of  Attention. 

Attention  has  been  defined  as  "Fixity  of  Thought,"  and 
Professor  Janios  recognizes  two  kinds:  (1)  Passive  or  Spontan- 
eous Attention,  and  (2)  A^oluntary  Attention,  or  attention  with 
effort.  The  former  is  that  given  to  immediately  interesting 
things,  and  does  not  need  to  concern  us  further.  The  latter, 
Active  or  Sustained  Attention,  is  the  one  that  affects  our  teach- 


290  RELIGIOLS    EDUCATION 

The   Law  of  Voluntary  Attention. 

"One  often  hears  it  said  that  genius  is  nothing  but  a  power 
of  sustained  attention,  and  the  popular  impression  probably  pre- 
vails that  men  of  genius  are  remarkable  for  their  voluntary  pow- 
ers in  this  direction.  But  a  little  introspective  observation  will 
show  any  one  that  voluntary  attention  cannot  be  continuously 
sustained — that  it  comes  in  beats.  When  we  are  studying  an 
uninteresting  subject,  if  our  minds  tend  to  wander,  we  have  to 
bring  back  our  attention  every  now  and  then  by  using  distinct 
pulses  of  effort,  which  revivify  the  topic  for  a  moment,  the  mind 
tlien  running  on  for  a  certain  number  of  seconds  or  minutes  with 
spontaneous  interest,  until  again  some  intercurrent  idea  captures 
it  and  takes  it  off.  Then  the  processes  of  volitional  recall  must 
be  repeated  once  more.  Voluntary  attention,  in  short,  is  only  a 
momentary  affair.  The  process,  whatever  it  is,  exhausts  itself 
in  the  single  act;  and,  unless  the  matter  is  then  taken  in  hand 
by  some  trace  of  interest  inherent  in  the  subject,  the  mind  fails 
to  follow  it  at  all.  The  sustained  attention  of  the  genius,  stick- 
ing to  his  subject  for  hours  together,  is  for  the  most  part  of  the 
passive  sort.  The  minds  of  geniuses  are  full  of  original  and 
copious  associations.  The  subject  of  thought,  once  started,  de- 
velops all  sorts  of  fascinating  consequences.  The  attention  is  led 
along  one  of  these  to  another  in  the  most  interesting  manner, 
and  the  attention  never  once  tends  to  stray  away. 

''Voluntary  attention  is  thus  an  essentially  instantaneous 
affair.  You  can  claim  it,  for  your  purposes  in  the  schoolroom, 
by  commanding  it  in  loud,  imperious  tones;  and  you  can  easily 
get  it  in  this  way.  But,  unless  the  subject  to  which  you  thus 
recall  their  attention  has  inherent  power  to  interest  the  pupils, 
you  will  have  held  it  for  only  a  brief  moment;  and  their  minds 
will  soon  be  wandering  again.  To  keep  them  where  you  have 
called  them,  you  must  make  the  subject  too  interesting  for  them 
to  wander  again.  And  for  that  there  is  one  prescription :  but  the 
prescription,  like  all  our  prescriptions,  is  abstract,  and,  to  get 
practical  results  from  it,  you  must  couple  it  with  mother-wit." 

How  Not  to  Get  Attention. 

We  cannot  secure  it  by  simply  demanding  it.  This  results 
in  seeming  attention;  but  real  mind-wandering,  and  inattention. 


Till':  AK'I'  OK  SKCURINC;  ATTP]NTION  201 

Clainiint,'  it,  dcmaiuliii^f  it,  entreating  it,  will  be  useless.  Noth- 
ing can  keep  tlie  ehild's  attention  fixed,  save  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject considered. 

Slattery  says:  "Although  wc  could  never  teach  without 
voluntary  attention,  no  teacher  is  satisfied  with  tliat  alone.  He 
must  work  constantly  toward  the  attention  which  is  given  vol- 
untarily despite  other  attractions.  This  attention  some  teachers 
seem  nnable  to  gain.  Their  Sunday  School  hour  is  filled  by  a 
series  of  stories,  pictures,  maps,  symbols,  etc.,  which  attract 
attention  to  themselves,  but  do  not  give  opportunity  for  real 
teaching.  One  has  a  right  to  expect  voluntary  attention  from 
the  average  nine  or  ten-year-old  for  short  periods.  At  twelve, 
children  ought  to  be  able  to  give  strict  attention  for  twenty 
minutes  if  the  teacher  has  thoughtfully  prepared  the  lesson  with 
his  special  class  in  view.  If  he  is  sure  there  is  plenty  of  fresh 
air,  and  disturbances  such  as  loud  talking,  continual  moving 
about,  passing  books  and  papers,  are  removed,  the  attention 
will  be  much  more  intense  and  a  greater  impression  can  be 
made." 

"Negatively,  then,  attention  is  not  to  be  secured  by  clamor 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher,"  says  See.  "Tt  may  not  be  claimed 
by  any  appeals.  The  teacher  who  in  loud  tones  calls  for  atten- 
tion is  not  so  apt  to  secure  it  as  the  one  who  lowers  his  voice 
or  ceases  for  the  moment  altogether.  The  pause  in  the  vibrations 
of  the  machinery  aboard  ship  causes  the  passengers  to  awake, 
whereas  an  increase  in  the  vibrations  might  only  lull  to  a  sounder 
sleep.  'Nothing,'  says  Gregory,  'can  bo  more  unphilosophical 
than  the  attempt  to  compel  the  wearied  attention  to  a  new  effort 
by  mere  authority.  As  well  compel  embers  to  rekindle  into  a 
blaze  by  blowing.' " 

Principles  Involved. 

Attention  will  not  attach  itself  to  uninteresting  things. 
Therefore  the  subject  must  be  made  to  change  its  aspects,  show 
new  sides,  and  new  and  interesting  phases.  From  an  unchang- 
ing subject  the  mind,  even  of  an  adult,  must  wander.  Either  the 
stimulus  must  vary  or  some  new  attribute  must  be  discovered  in 
the  subject.  The  nervous  system  soon  tires  under  the  strain  of 
continuous  attention  to  the  same  thins. 


292  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

The  Will  the  Basis  of  Voluntary  Attention. 

Says  Ilaslctt :  "The  psychology  of  the  will  is  the  psychology 
of  action  and  attention.  Whatever  conduces  to  proper  activity 
and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  child  favors  development  of 
volitional  power.  In  its  last  analysis,  will  is  effort  of  attention. 
A  child  that  cannot  attend  well  possesses  a  weak  will. 

"Interest  is  fundamental  in  attention  and  must  he  made 
central  in  the  development  of  the  will  power  in  little  children. 
Will,  action,  attention,  interest  are  closely  related  and  develop 
together.    Interest  seems  to  be  the  guiding  star  of  the  group. 

"The  child  should  be  trained  in  obedience;  but  the  will  is 
best  trained  when  an  interest  and  a  free  expression  of  movement 
are  present.  And  little  children  are  to  be  permitted  and  en- 
couraged to  work  out  in  active  life  the  truths  they  have  been 
taught,  of  a  moral  and  religious  nature.  As  far  as  possible  the 
truths  should  be  taught  in  the  doing. 

"While  the  attention  of  children  of  the  early  childhood  stage 
is  chiefly  of  the  spontaneous  or  passive  sort,  the  attention  of 
children  of  the  next  stage  is  chiefly  active  or  voluntary.  They 
are  able  to  put  forth  considerable  effort  in  attempting  to  attend. 
Interest  was  the  principal  guide  in  the  former  stage,  but  while  it 
is  by  no  means  to  be  discarded  at  this  stage,  yet  the  individual  is 
now  capable  of  acquiring,  to  some  degree  at  least,  an  interest. 
He  is  able  to  attend  to  a  subject  and  concentrate  his  attention 
upon  it  and  actually  become  interested  in  it.  The  emphasis  is 
almost  always  placed  upon  the  obverse  proposition  that  children 
attend  to  whatever  they  have  an  interest  in,  but  it  is  just  as  true 
that  they  are  apt  to  become  interested  in  whatever  they  attend  to. 

"Attention  is  usually  active  in  obedience.  Of  course  the  aim 
is  secondary  passive  attention  for  all.  We  want  the  child  to 
reach,  as  soon  as  possible,  the  condition  of  development  where 
interest,  that  is  the  result  of  active  attention  where  effort  was 
necessary,  becomes  so  strong  and  consuming  that  the  mind  will 
attend  unconsciously  to  the  great  tasks  of  life.  This  aim  is  high, 
far  beyond  the  race  as  such  now,  but  it  will  be  attained  by  and 
by.  Teachers  and  parents  should  not  go  to  the  obverse  extreme 
and  conclude  that  whatever  is  not  of  natural  and  easy  interest 
to  the  child  is  to  be  discarded.  Children  can  be  put  down  to 
hard  work  and  required  to  do  their  work  well,  provided  the  ses- 


THE  ART  OF  SECURING  ATTENTION  293 

sions  are  not  too  long,  the  work  too  (lilllciilt  or  advanced,  nor  the 
physical  strain  too  great. 

"The  attention  will  most  like!}'  he  exerted  along  the  line  of 
the  most  favored  function.  The  child  will  attend  to  those  things 
that  he  likes  best.  A  sensory-minded  child  will  give  attention 
most  readily  to  practical  things ;  he  will  notice  their  general  as- 
pects, but  not  details.  The  sensory-minded  child  is  able  to  con- 
centrate his  attention.  '^Fhe  motor-minded  child  is  troubled 
with  a  vacillating  attention." 

In  Talks  With  tiik  Training  Class,  Miss  Slattery  says : 
"One  summer  afternoon  a  young  man  sat  under  the  pines  on  a 
sloping  hillside  thinking  deeply.  Two  hours  passed  and  sud- 
denly he  raised  his  eyes  to  the  distant  mountains,  and  said,  'I 
will.'  That  'I  will'  sent  him  to  an  island  in  the  southern  Pacific 
to  spend  his  life  with  a  degraded,  barbarous  race,  whose  eyes  he 
slowly  opened  until  they  saw  their  Creator  and  worshipped  ITim. 

"Across  the  river  sat  another  young  man  on  a  bench  in  a 
green  and  beautiful  park.  He  seemed  to  be  thinking  earnestly. 
Suddenly  he  said  aloud,  'After  all,  I  will,'  and  sauntered  off  to 
join  companions  who  had  invited  him  to  a  game  in  the  corner 
club-room.  That  'J  will'  cost  him  in  the  end  home  and  friends, 
and  sent  him  to  a  prison  cell — a  thief. 

"What  a  tremendous  power  it  is  which  makes  possible  de- 
cision and  resolution !  One  trembles  in  the  presence  of  such  a 
power  as  he  realizes  the  consequences  which  may  follow  the  'I 
will'  which,  of  all  creation,  only  man  can  say. 

"As  we  consider  and  try  to  analyze  the  pathway  Will,  we 
must  remember  that  the  deliberate  '1  will'  is  the  basis  of  man's 
character,  and  the  'I  will'  of  the  crises  in  life  is  being  made  by 
the  'I  will'  of  each  day.  You  will  remember  that  the  pathway 
Willing  includes  all  the  operations  of  the  mind  leading  to  action 
— Attention,  the  Will,  and  Habit  being  the  special  things  we 
shall  consider.  The  power  to  gain  and  hold  attention  is  the  one 
great  desire  of  every  teacher,  for  without  it  he  cannot  really 
teach. 

"The  other  day  when  the  sun  was  pouring  light  and  heat 
upon  the  sandy  playground,  one  of  the  boys  took  a  burning 
glass  and  held  it  over  his  straw  hat.  When  he  removed  it  the 
place  was  badly  scorched.    He  asked,  "^Why,'  and  was  much  in- 


294  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

terested  in  the  explanation.  Attention  is  very  much  like  that 
burning-glass;  it  gathers  up  and  centralizes  and  brings  to  focus 
upon  one  thing  all  the  mind  power.  Attention  is  not  a  distinct 
faculty,  but  rather  a  state  of  the  mind." 

"One  means  to  secure  attention  is  to  secure  its  physical  at- 
titude. If  sitting  up  straight  and  looking  at  the  teacher  has 
gone  with  attention  oftener  than  has  lolling  back  and  wriggling, 
then  the  attention  of  a  lolling  class  can  be  improved  by  having 
them  sit  up  straight.  If  we  need  to  study  a  book,  we  can  at 
least  open  it  and  look  at  the  words.  Interest  may  come  then 
which  would  fail  to  come  so  long  as  we  sat  thinking,  'I  ought 
to  study  that  lesson.'  Teachers  need  to  remember,  however, 
that  attention  is  nioasiircd  by  results  and  not  some  bodily  atti- 
tudes, and  on  the  other  hand  children  readily  learn  to  mimic 
the  postures  of  attention,  witliout  having  the  reality." 
Placing  the  Scholars. 

Professor  Adams  remarks :  "To  see  both  ends  of  the  front 
form,  it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher  should  sit  at  some  little 
distance  from  his  pupils.  The  exact  spot  for  his  chair  is  said 
to  be  at  the  apex  of  an  equilateral  triangle  whose  base  is  the 
front  form.  To  find  this  spot,  get  two  other  forms  the  same  size 
as  the  front  one,  and  make  the  three  into  a  triangle.  Where  the 
two  extra  forms  meet,  is  the  place  for  the  teacher's  chair.  Often 
there  is  not  enough  space  to  allow  of  the  teacher  sitting  so  far 
back,  and  in  any  case  there  is  usually  a  difficulty,  because  at  that 
distance  the  teacher  must  speak  more  loudly  than  is  consistent 
with  the  comfort  of  neighboring  classes.  If  the  class  has  a 
room  of  its  own,  this  distance  is  a  great  advantage,  but  if  there 
are  several  classes  in  the  same  room,  the  matter  must  be  com- 
promised by  sitting  nearer  the  class  and  making  up  for  the  dis- 
advantage of  position  by  increased  vigilance.  With  regard  to 
the  loudness  of  the  teacher's  speech  there  must  be  no  confusion 
between  loudness  and  clearness.  A  nmn  may  often  make  him- 
self quite  distinctly  heard  by  those  whom  he  wishes  to  address, 
without  speaking  in  anything  like  a  loud  voice.  The  teacher 
must  do  his  ])est  to  discover  how  quietly  he  may  speak  without 
causing  his  pupils  to  strain  in  order  to  hear.  Anything  beyond 
this  pitch  is  wasted  effort  which  profits  his  class  nothing,  while 
it  greatly  interferes  with  the  work  of  the  others. 


THE  ART  OF  SECURING  ATTENTION  295 

"Troubk'soine  motor  pupils  should  be  placed  to  the  teacher's 
right  and  left,  at  the  ends  of  the  seats  next  the  teacher.  Not 
only  are  these  pupils  thus  brought  near  the  teacher,  but  each  of 
them  has  only  one  close  neighbor,  and  thus  has  his  opportunity 
of  causing  disturbance  greatly  lessened.  The  best  place  for  a 
reserved,  sly,  tricky  pupil  is  in  the  middle  of  the  seat  in  front  of 
the  teacher,  who  is  thus  in  the  best  position  for  observing.  There 
is  nothing  so  paralyzing  to  the  energies  of  the  mischievous  still 
child  as  the  unsympathetic  but  vigilant  eye  of  the  teacher.  The 
hand  may  be  needed  occasionally  to  repress  gently  the  exuber- 
ance of  the  motor  children  to  the  right  and  left,  but  the  eye  is 
what  is  required  for  the  deeper  plans  of  the  self-contained  trick- 
ster." 

Native  Variations  of  Attention. 

According  to  James :  "One  more  point,  and  1  am  done 
with  the  subject  of  attention.  There  is  unquestionably  a  great 
native  variety  among  individuals  in  the  type  of  their  attention. 
Some  of  us  are  naturally  scatter-brained,  and  others  follow 
easily  a  train  of  connected  thoughts  without  temptation  to 
swerve  aside  to  other  subjects.  This  seems  to  depend  on  a  dif- 
ference between  individuals  in  the  type  of  their  field  of  con- 
sciousness. In  some  persons  this  is  highly  focalized  and  con- 
centrated, and  the  focal  ideas  predominate  in  determining  asso- 
ciation. In  others  we  must  suppose  the  margin  to  be  brighter, 
and  to  be  filled  with  something  like  meteoric  showers  of  images, 
which  strike  it  at  random,  displacing  the  focal  ideas,  and  carry- 
ing association  in  their  own  direction.  Persons  of  the  latter 
type  find  their  attention  wandering  every  minute,  and  must 
bring  it  back  by  a  voluntary  will.  The  others  sink  into  a  sub- 
ject of  meditation  deeply,  and,  when  interrupted,  are  'lost'  for 
a  moment  before  they  come  back  to  the  outer  world. 

"The  possession  of  such  a  steady  faculty  of  attention  is  un- 
questionably a  great  boon.  Those  who  have  it  can  work  more 
rapidly,  and  with  less  nervous  wear  and  tear.  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  no  one  who  is  without  it  naturally  can  by  any  amount 
of  drill  or  discipline  attain  it  in  a  very  high  degree.  Its  amount 
is  probably  a  fixed  characteristic  of  the  individual.  But  I  wish 
to  make  a  remark  here  which  I  shall  have  occasion  to  make  again 


296  EELICIOUS    EDUCATION 

in  other  connectioiKs.  Tt  is  tliat  no  one  need  deplore  unduly  the 
inferiority  in  himself  of  any  one  elementary  faculty.  This 
concentrated  type  of  attention  is  an  elementary  faculty:  it  is 
one  of  the  things  that  might  be  ascertained  and  measured  by 
exercises  in  the  laboratory.  The  total  mental  efficiency  of  a 
man  is  the  resultant  of  the  working  together  of  all  his  faculties. 
He  is  too  complex  a  being  for  any  one  of  them  to  have  the  cast- 
ing vote.  If  any  one  of  them  does  have  the  casting  vote,  it  is 
more  likely  to  be  the  strength  of  his  desire  and  passion,  the 
strength  of  the  interest  he  takes  in  wluit  is  prospered.  Concen- 
tration, memory,  reasoning,  power,  inventiveness,  excellence  of 
the  senses,  all  are  subsidiary  to  this.  No  matter  how  scatter- 
brained the  type  of  a  man's  successive  fields  of  consciousness 
may  be,  if  he  really  care  for  a  subject,  he  will  return  to  it  in- 
cessantly from  his  incessant  wanderings,  and  first  and  last  do 
more  with  it,  and  get  more  results  from  it,  than  another  person 
whose  attention  may  be  more  continuous  during  a  given  inter- 
val, but  whose  passion  for  the  subject  is  of  a  more  languid  and 
less  permanent  sort." 
Fatigue. 

It  is  important  that  even  the  Sunday  School  Teachers  learn 
to  recognize  the  manifest  signs  of  fatigue  in  the  class  and  not 
spoil  the  good  effect  of  a  lesson  by  "overdoing  it.''  There  are 
two  recognized  kinds  of  fatigue  (a)  normal,  and  (b)  abnormal. 
(a)  Normal  Fatigue  is  the  proper  result  of  all  work,  mental  or 
physical.  It  is  the  bending  of  the  bow-string,  which  springs 
back  again  on  release.  Eest,  sleep,  and  food  correct  normal 
fatigue,  (b)  Abnormal  Fatigue  is  snapping  and  cracking  the 
bow,  pushing  the  expenditure  of  energy  beyond  recovery.  Then 
a  diseased  condition  usually  ensues. 

Signs  of  Fatigue. 

(a)  XorDial. —  (1)  A  definite  weakening  of  Attention. 
After  half  an  hour  few  adults  can  pay  attention  well.  (2) 
An  increasing  unreadiness  and  inaccuracy  of  Judgment.  It  is 
unwise  to  endeavor  to  solve  difficult  problems  at  night  time  or 
to  worry  over  an  unpleasantness  in  the  evening.  The  best  plan  is 
steadfastly  to  refuse  to  consider  such  things  when  weary,  to  de- 
termine to  rest  and  sleep.     In  the  morning  the  clouds  will  have 


Till';  Airr  ok  SKcrinxc;  attf.mion  297 

passcMl  away  and  not  only  will  your  judgment  he  clearer,  but 
many  oi'  the  shadows  which  were  caused  merely  by  fatigue  will 
have  disappeared.  (3)  Loss  of  Sclf-Control,  Temper,  etc. 
When  the  husbantl  comes  home  tired  at  night,  cross  and  irritable, 
the  wise  wife  says  nothing,  but  "feeds  the  brute"  and  lets  him 
rest.  Soon  the  irritation  has  passed  away,  and  many  a  family 
jar  is  avoided  in  this  common  sense  numner.  (4)  Lessened 
Work-rate.  Not  only  is  it  diflicult  to  do  work  when  fatigued, 
but  it  literally  does  not  pay,  for  less  work  is  accomplished  than 
would  be  if  proper  rest  and  recuperation  were  taken.  Note, 
that  the  concentrated  attention  of  Adults  can  be  held  for  forty- 
five  minutes  only  with  useful  results;  that  of  children  of 
adolescent  age  not  over  thirty  minutes;  snuill  children  of  the 
Primary  age  not  over  fifteen  minutes. 

(b)  Abnormal — (1)  Depression  of  the  ^louth  Angles.  (2) 
Presence  of  llori/iontal  Forehead  Furrows:  These  horizontal 
forehead  furrows  are  a  characteristic  expression  of  the  weak 
minded  and  the  insane,  showing  the  result  of  abnormal  fatigue 
in  their  lives.  (3)  Eye-wandering  and  positive  inability  to  pre- 
serve fixation  of  the  eyes.  Note,  this  does  not  mean  ordinary 
restlessness.  One  of  the  tests  of  insanity  is  dancing  eyes  where 
the  pupil  cannot  be  held  and  concentrated.  It  may  also  occur 
with  ordinal}'  abnormal  fatigue.  (4)  Dull,  dark  color  under  the 
eyes.  These  signs  are  of  value  only  because  a  Sunday  School 
Teacher  may  have  children  in  the  class  abnormally  fatigued 
during  the  week  from  either  (1)  overwork  (2)  unwholesome 
confinement  in  unsanitary  homes  (3)  injurious  shocks  or  bad 
treatment. 

No  one  should  draw  a  positive  conclusion  from  only  one  of 
these  signs,  as  for  example,  a  "black  eye."  Taken  all  together, 
however,  they  form  a  clinical  picture  of  which  there  can  be  no 
doubt.  Just  as  we  have  a  typical  face  that  is  pathonomic  of 
consumption,  so  we  hav(>  one  that  definitely  proclaims  Abnormal 
Fatigue. 

QUESTIONS    FOR   THOLTillT   AND   DTSCfSSrON. 

1.  What  is  the  Psychological  Basis  of  all  Attention? 

2.  What  two  kiTids  of  Attention  are  ther<>? 

3.  What  is  needful  to  "hold  Attention"?    Wliy? 

4.  Give  concrete  examples  of  proper  plans  for  gaining  Attention. 

5.  \Miat  faults  have  you  noted  in  your  Class  Methods  here? 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE   PROPER   AND   IMPROPER  USES  OF   INTEREST. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

♦Relation  of  Interest  to  Will.     Herbart  Year  Book.     Dcicey. 

How  to  Conduct  the  Recitation.     McMurry.     pp.   11-12. 

The  School  and  Society.     Dewey,     pp.  54. 

•Talks  to  Teachers.     James,     pp.  91-90. 

Up  Through  Childhood.     Huhhcll.     pp.  173/f. 

♦Elements  of  Psychology.     Tliorndtke.    pp.  53-58. 

How  to  Interest.     Mutch. 

Teaching  of  Bible  Classes.     See.     p.  34. 

My  Pedagogic  Creed.     Dcwry.     p.  15. 

Foundations  of  Education.     Moore,     pp.  49-67. 

The  New  Psychology.     Oordy.      (Interest.) 

Pedagogical  Bible  School.     Haslett.     pp.  251-256. 

How  the  Interest  of  Children  May  be  Secured. 

Professor  Dewey  of  the  University  of  Chicago  and  of  Col- 
umbia, in  his  Herbart  Year  Book  covers  the  Eehition  of  Inter- 
est to  Will.  There  is  one  pregnant  sentence  in  the  discussion 
which  sums  up  the  whole  of  practical  pedagogy.  The  gist  of 
his  argument  is  "tliat  genuine  interest  is  the  identification, 
through  action,  of  the  self  with  some  object  or  idea,  because  of 
the  necessity  of  that  object  or  idea  for  the  maintenance  of  self- 
expression.  .  .  .  When  we  recognize  that  there  are  certain 
powers  within  the  child  urgent  for  development,  needing  to  be 
acted  upon,  in  order  to  secure  their  own  efficiency  and  disci- 
pline, we  have  a  firm  basis  upon  which  to  build." 

Expressed  in  plainer  language,  things  do  not  have  to  be 
"made  interesting,"  if  we  are  teaching  the  proper  subject  in  the 
proper  way.  As  Dr.  Dewey  puts  it,  "Interest  is  no  more  pas- 
sively waiting  around  to  be  excited  from  the  outside  than  is  im- 
pulse," or  the  child's  native  desires  and  tendencies.  Interest  is 
but  the  child's  own  native  responsiveness  to  its  own  self-active 
impulses,  urging  on  to  their  satisfaction.  Interest  is  thus  (a) 
active^  or  propulsive,  the  native  impulses  of  the  child  pushing 


THE  PROPER  AND  IMPROPER  USES  OK  INTEREST    2!M) 

on  to  ii  discharge  in  one  direction  or  another;  (b)  objective,  that 
is,  interest  always  attaches  itself  to  some  object  or  thing,  whether 
material  or  mental;  (c)  emotional,  that  is,  accompanied  by  feel- 
ings of  its  being  "worth  while,"  which  is  the  reason  why  the  child 
keeps  on  in  cases  of  effort  whicli  at  times  may  seem  disagree- 
able. 

The  Child's  Interests  are  really  but  another  name  for  his 
innate  hereditary  impulses,  desires,  emotions,  instincts,  of  which 
we  have  treated  before.  Professor  Dewey  writes  in  My  Peda- 
gogic Creed  :  "Interests  are  the  signs  and  symptoms  of  growing 
power.  I  believe  that  they  represent  dawning  capacities.  Ac- 
cordingly the  constant  and  careful  observation  of  interests  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  for  the  educator.  These  interests  are  to 
be  observed  as  showing  the  state  of  development  which  the  child 
has  reached.  They  prophesy  the  state  upon  which  he  is  about  to 
enter.  Only  through  the  continual  and  sympathetic  observation 
of  childhood's  interests  can  the  adult  enter  into  the  child's  life 
and  see  what  it  is  ready  for,  and  upon  what  material  it  could 
work  most  readily  and  fruitfully. 

"These  interests  are  neither  to  be  humored  nor  repressed. 
To  repress  interest  is  to  substitute  the  adult  for  the  child,  and  so 
to  weaken  intellectual  curiosity  and  alertness,  to  suppress  initia- 
tive, and  to  deaden  interest.  To  humor  the  interests  is  to  sub- 
stitute the  transient  for  the  permanent.  The  interest  is  always 
the  sign  of  some  power  below ;  the  important  thing  is  to  discover 
this  power.  To  humor  the  interest  is  to  fail  to  penetrate  below 
the  surface,  and  its  sure  result  is  to  substitute  caprice  and  whim 
for  genuine  interest." 

Two  Kinds  of  Interest. 

This  feeling  of  so-called  Effort  indicates  the  two  kinds  of 
Interest  recognized:  (1)  Immediate  or  Direct,  and  (3)  Mediate 
or  Derived.  The  former  is  where  the  self-expression  puts  itself 
forth  with  no  thought  of  anything  beyond.  The  end  is  the  pres- 
ent activity.  The  mere  pleasure  of  action  or  colors,  or  the  excite- 
ment of  a  story,  or  of  play  and  amusement  is  of  this  character. 
Derived  Interest  on  the  other  hand  gains  its  hold  on  our  minds 
through  association  with  something  else  that  is  interesting  in 
itself,  and  the  interest  in  the  one  is  carried  over  to  the  other. 


300  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

Thus  a  time-table  can  be  of  utmost  interest,  if  it  concerns  our 
own  journey  or  that  of  some  friend.  Hard  work  ceases  to  be  a 
drudgeiy  when  connected  with  some  definite  and  appreciated 
result.  This  therefore  is  what  we  mean  when  we  say,  "Create 
Interest."  It  does  not  mean  a  false  interest  set  up  by  colored 
chalk-lines,  or  bright  figures  or  pictures  with  no  meaning  in 
themselves.  It  does  not  purpose  jingly  tunes  or  nonsensical  mo- 
tions for  the  attention,  held  momentarily  and  aimlessly.  It 
means  all  the  real,  intrinsic  connection  of  the  subject  with  the 
child's  own  vital  past  experiences,  with  his  own  impulses  to 
thought  and  action,  giving  self-expression  to  his  own  native  or 
acquired  wants  and  tendencies,  and  thus  an  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject in  hand.  Any  other  means,  used  to  hold  Attention,  main- 
tain Order,  secure  Study,  gain  Answers  to  Questions  are  false 
and  worse  than  useless,  being  positively  injurious,  and  creative 
of  the  permanent  habit  of  Divided  Attention  or  Mind-wander- 
ing. 

The  same  thing  may  elicit  either  Immediate  or  Derived 
Interest,  according  to  circumstances.  Thus  riding  a  wheel  would 
be  Immediate  Interest  on  a  bright,  cool  day,  when  running  along 
a  good  country  road,  leisurely  riding  for  pleasure,  in  utmost 
enjoyment  of  every  present  moment.  But  riding  that  same 
wheel,  on  a  hot,  sultry  day,  on  a  dusty,  poor  road,  up  a  steep  hill, 
seeking  to  reach  a  certain  destination  on  time,  would  represent 
Derived  Interest,  not  Immediate  or  Spontaneous.  That  is,  De- 
rived Interest  comes  when  the  end  is  somewhat  remote.  jMiicli  of 
life  is  of  this  type.  The  business  man  plods  through  a  laborious 
or  unpleasant  task,  day  after  day,  not  for  its  intrinsic  pleasure, 
not  for  the  salary  at  the  week's  end,  not  even  for  the  things  that 
salary  can  buy  at  home,  but  ultimately  for  the  love  he  bears  his 
wife  and  family ;  Derived  Interest,  because  the  end  is  remote  and 
effort  bridges  over  the  chasm  between.  Someone  has  said  that 
all  life  is  ruled  by  but  two  basal  motives,  Love  and  Duty;  that 
the  latter  is  really  the  former,  where  an  ideal  devotion  to  a 
principle  demands  a  love  that  stands  paramount  to  the  love  at- 
taching to  a  person  or  a  thing. 

Professor  Gordy  says:  "The  secret  of  interest  is  adaptation. 
The  toys  and  playthings  and  pictures  of  a  child  amuse  him  be- 
cause they  are  adapted  to  his  state  of  development — they  stimu- 


rilK   I'Kni'KK  AM)  I  .\11'1{(  )I'KK  I  SKS  OF  INTEREST         ;{01 

lute  him  lo  exercise  his  powers.  What  we  must  do  in  teaching,  if 
we  e.xixct  to  interest  our  pupils,  is  to  set  them  to  do  something 
that  they  are  ahle  to  do,  in  order  that  they  may  acquire  the  power 
to  do  wiiat  they  cannot  do.  We  should  constantly  be  striving  at 
every  stage  ol"  a  child's  development  to  learn  the  contents  of  his 
mind — to  make  an  inventory  of  his  capacities,  so  as  to  see  which 
of  them  we  may  turn  to  educational  account,  and  how.  And 
here  again  we  come  upon  the  fact  that  meets  us  at  every  turn 
and  corner  of  our  experience  in  teaching — the  necessity  of  a  con- 
stant, careful,  systematic  study  of  our  pupils,  if  we  hope  for  the 
best  success  in  teaching  them.  Unless  we  know  them  thoroughly, 
we  cannot  adapt  our  teachings  to  them  perfectly."' 

Thus  the  Interest  is  not  in  the  thing,  but  in  the  person. 
You  can  never  "make  things  interesting."  They  must  be  of  a 
nature  (and  so  well  presented)  as  to  attract  the  internal,  natural 
interest  of  the  individual  approached.  He  already  possesses  the 
Interest :  you  merely  give  him  the  material.  He  already  has  the 
hunger:  you  give  him  the  proper  food.  A  full  table  does  not 
create  the  hungei",  it  satisfies  it,  already  there,  though  perhaps 
dormant.  Everyone,  always  and  at  all  times,  has  some  Interest, 
unless  he  be  unconscious  or  dead.  He  is  bound  to  manifest  that 
interest  in  something,  if  the  right  thing  can  be  found  and  given 
to  him.  If  he  be  lethargic,  the  fault  is  not  in  him,  but  in  the 
material  or  its  presentation,  and  so  ultimately  in  the  teacher. 

Three  Causes  of  Interest. 

Thorndikc  says:  "Much  assistance  is  given  to  the  teacher  in 
this  process  of  refining  and  redirecting  interests  by  three  facts. 
The  first  is  the  general  law  of  association  that  whatever  tendency 
brings  satisfaction  will  be  perpetuated  and  strengthened.  When- 
ever an  interest  is  made  to  profit  a  pupil,  it  will  be  preserved. 
Connect  any  response  with  an  original  or  acquired  satisfier  and 
it  will  satisfy.  The  hardest  sort  of  bodily  labor  becomes  inter- 
esting when  it  gives  a  boy  a  place  on  the  football  team  or  con- 
nects with  the  excitement  and  achievement  of  hunting  big  game. 
The  second  is  the  force  of  imitation.  What  the  community  cares 
about  will  interest  each  new  member;  the  teacher  who  is  inter- 
ested in  a  subject  will  infect  her  class.  The  third  is  the  fact 
that  knowledge  breeds  interest,  that,  with  certain  exceptions,  the 


;J02  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

power  to  handle  a  subject  produces  in  the  long  run  an  interest 
in  it,  uninteresting  as  it  may  have  been  at  the  start.  As  soon  as 
the  high-school  pupil  can  really  read  German,  he  is  likely  to 
gain  an  interest  in  it." 

Practical  Precepts. 

In  his  little  pamphlet  on  How  to  Interest,  Mutch  says: 
"Until  after  the  kindergarten  age  the  chief  interest  of  childhood 
is  in  seeing.  Show  them  something.  They  appreciate  intensely 
a  few  tilings  which  appeal  to  the  sense  of  taste.  The  touch  is 
very  sensitive  to  things  cold  or  hot,  and  there  are  a  few  sounds 
which  strongly  appeal  to  the  sense  of  hearing.  But  none  of 
these  have  the  great  variety  of  interest  which  the  child  finds  in 
the  things  seen." 

In  Miss  Slattery's  book.  Talks  with  the  Thaining  Class, 
we  read  as  follows :  "Each  year  from  my  study  of  these  papers, 
and  the  pupils  who  wrote  them,  I  have  been  obliged  to  come  to 
the  same  conclusion — namely,  that  all  children  are  intensely  in- 
terested in  life  and  in  great  principles  and  truths  as  they  touch 
life;  and  they  are  not  interested  in  abstract  statements  of  truth 
apart  from  life. 

"Real  curiosity  leads  to  interest.  Interest  means  attention, 
attention  means  knowledge,  and  knowledge  influences  character 
and  conduct.     It  is  an  endless  chain.     Strengthen  the  chain." 

Thorndike  writes:  "Other  things  being  equal,  get  interest 
that  is  steady  and  self-sustaining  rather  than  interest  that  flags 
repeatedly  and  has  to  be  constantly  reinforced  by  thoughts  of 
duty,  punishment,  or  the  like.  Get  the  right  things  done  at  any 
cost — but  get  them  done  with  as  little  inhibition  and  strain  as 
possible.  Other  things  being  equal,  work  with  and  not  against 
instinctive  interests.  The  problem  of  interest  in  teaching  is  not 
whether  children  shall  learn  with  interest  or  without  it;  they 
never  learn  without  it;  but  what  kind  of  interest  it  shall  be; 
from  what  the  interest  shall  be  derived." 

Killing  Interest. 

Professor  Adams  remarks :  "To  arouse  and  sustain  interest 
is  of  such  vital  moment  in  teaching  that  scarcely  any  attention 
has  been  given  by  writers  to  the  almost  equally  important  sub- 
ject of  satisfying  or  allaying  interest.     It  is  perhaps  impossible 


TIIK  I'ltOl'Ki;  AM)  IMI'KOl'KR  USES  OF  INTEREST         :Uj;j 

to  have  too  much  interest  in  a  lesson,  but  it  is  quite  common  to 
have  that  interest  badly  distributed.  In  the  course  of  teaching 
there  is  frequently  a  struggle  of  interests  and  if  the  teacher  de- 
sires to  guide  the  pupil  in  one  direction,  he  must  study  the  clash 
of  interests  in  order  the  more  effectively  to  favor  the  one  that  he 
desires  to  prevail.  He  must  learn  the  art  of  killing  interest  as 
well  as  the  art  of  rousing  interest.  Now  the  best  way  of  killing 
interest  is  not  by  opposing  it,  but  by  gratifying  it.  So  soon  as 
an  interest  has  been  satisfied,  it  dies  a  natural  death.  In  all 
cases  he  must  try  to  avoid  rousing  any  interest  that  is  likely  to 
be  more  powerful  than  the  main  line  of  interest  that  runs 
through  the  lesson.  In  spite  of  all  his  endeavors,  however,  the 
teacher  will  often  find  that  he  has  called  up  powerful  interests 
that  compete  with  the  interest  he  has  mainly  in  view;  and  in 
any  case,  even  the  subsidiary  interests  he  arouses  must  be  dealt 
with  as  they  arise,  or  they  will  form  a  powerfully  distracting 
force.  Side  issues  must  be  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  satisfy 
all  the  interest  they  excite,  while  the  main  subject  of  the  lesson 
is  managed  so  as  to  maintain  the  interest  to  the  end." 

False  Views  of  Interest. 

According  to  Thorndike :  "It  is  a  common  error  to  confuse 
the  interesting  with  the  easy  and  to  argue  that  the  doctrine  of 
interest  is  false  because  it  is  wrong  to  make  everything  easy. 
This  is  an  error,  because  in  fact  the  most  ditficult  things  may  be 
very  interesting  and  the  easiest  things  very  dull.  A  second  com- 
mon error  is  to  confuse  the  feeling  of  interest  with  pleasure,  and 
to  argue  that  we  cannot  make  school  work  interesting  because 
some  necessary  features  of  it  simply  are  not  pleasurable.  It  is 
of  course  true  that  many  things  must  be  done  by  a  school  pupil 
which  produce  no  pleasure,  but  they  may  nevertheless  be  done 
with  interest.  A  tug  of  war  and  putting  up  a  heavy  dumbbell 
the  fiftieth  time  are  definitely  painful,  but  may  be  very  interest- 
ing. A  third  common  error  is  to  over-estimate  the  strength  of 
children's  interests  in  abstract  thinking.  For  the  majority  of 
all  minds,  and  the  great  majority  of  untiitored  minds,  demand 
content,  mental  stuff,  actual  color,  movement,  life,  and  'thing- 
ness' as  their  mental  food. 

"There  are  two  failures  of  teaching  with  respect  to  interest. 


304  RELKUOUS   EDUCATION 

The  first  is  the  failure  to  arouse  an}-  mental  zest  in  a  class,  to 
lift  the  class  out  of  a  dull,  listless,  apathetic  good  behavior  or 
keep  them  from  illicit  interests  in  grinning  at  each  other,  play- 
ing tricks,  chewing  candy,  and  the  like.  This  we  all  recognize 
as  failure.  The  second  type  succeeds  in  getting  interest,  but 
the  interest  is  in  the  wrong  thing.  Many  a  class  sits  entranced 
as  the  teacher  shows  them  pictures — they  are  thoroughly  inter- 
ested and  attentive — but  they  have  no  interest  whatever  in  the 
])rinciple  or  fact  which  the  pictures  are  to  illustrate.  A  lec- 
turer can  always  get  interest  by  telling  funny  stories,  but  again 
and  again  he  will  find  that  the  real  content  of  his  lecture  has 
been  entirely  neglected.  Too  often  the  picture,  the  story,  the 
specimen,  or  the  experiment  removes  as  much  interest  from 
the  lesson  itself  by  distracting  the  pupil  as  it  adds  by  its  con- 
creteness,  life,  and  action.  It  is  never  enough  to  keep  a  class 
interested.    They  must  be  interested  in  the  right  thing." 

Some  Helpful  Suggestions. 

Note  Professor  James'  Eule:  "Any  object,  not  interesting 
in  itself,  may  become  interesting  through  becoming  associated 
with  an  object  in  which  an  interest  already  exists.  The  two 
associated  objects  grow,  as  it  were,  together.  Again,  the  most 
natively  interesting  object  to  anyone  is  his  own  personal  self 
and  its  fortunes.  Lend  the  child  his  books,  pencils,  etc.,  then 
give  them  to  him  and  see  the  new  light  with  which  they  at 
once  shine  in  his  eyes.  Thus  in  teaching,  begin  with  subjects 
in  the  line  of  the  child's  own  personal,  native  interests:  and 
then,  step  by  step,  connect  your  new  teaching  and  new  objects 
with  these  old  ones."  This  is  what  is  involved  in  the  old  Her- 
bartian  doctrine  of  "Preparation,"  often  so  difficult  of  compre- 
hension. 

Says  Dr.  Bcwcij,  again:  "A  question  often  asked  is:  *If 
you  begin  with  the  child's  ideas,  impulses,  and  interests,  so  crude, 
so  random  and  scattering,  so  little  refined  or  spiritualized,  how 
is  he  going  to  get  the  necessary  discipline,  culture,  and  in- 
formation?' If  there  were  no  way  open  to  us  except  to  excite 
and  indulge  these  impulses  of  the  child,  the  question  might  be 
asked.  We  should  have  to  ignore  and  repress  the  activities,  or 
else  to  humor  them.     But  if  we  have  organization   of  e(juip- 


TIN';  I'Koi'Ki;  AM)  i.\ii'i;<)Im;i;  r.si:s  of  ixterkst      nur, 

iiionl  and  of  malcrials,  IIkto  i.<  anollier  palli  open  to  us.  We  can 
direct  the  t-liild's  activities,  giving  them  exercise  along  certain 
lines,  and  i-an  thus  lead  up  to  the  goal  whicli  logically  stands  at 
the  end  of  Ihe  paths  followed. 

"'If  wishes  were  horses,  beggars  would  ride.'  Since  they 
are  not,  since  really  to  satisfy  an  impulse  or  interest  means  to 
work  it  out,  and  working  it  out  involves  running  against  ob- 
stacU's.  becoming  acquainted  with  materials,  exercising  inge- 
nuity, patience,  persistence,  alertness,  it  of  necessity  involves 
discipline — ordering  of  power — and  supplies  knowledge.^' 

Professor  Adams  makes  this  statement:  "There  can  be  no 
interest  in  one  simple,  isolated  idea.  Only  by  being  brought 
into  relation  to  other  ideas  can  it  capture  interest.  This  is  what 
the  psychologist  means  when  he  says:  'We  cannot  attend  to 
anything  that  does  not  change.'  Our  will  is  incapable  of  fixing 
our  attention  for  more  than  a  second  or  two  upon  an  isolated 
idea.  That  is,  pure  voluntary  attention  cannot  be  maintained 
for  more  than  a  few  seconds  at  a  time.  Consider  what  happens 
in  your  own  case  when  you  try  hard  to  read  a  difficult  and,  for 
you,  uninteresting  book.  You  find  your  attention  wandering 
every  few  minutes,  and  have  to  recall  it  by  an  effort  of  the  will. 
Your  reading  is  made  up  of  a  long  series  of  alternations  between 
attention  and  inattention." 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  Explain   clearly  the  root   reason  why   the   false  notion  of   Interest 

with   Effort  is   both   ineffective  and   injurious. 

2.  In  what  lines  do  a  Child's  Interests  mainly  lie? 

3.  Will  Interest  differ  at  various  ages?    ^Yhy  or   why   not?    Explain 

by  examples. 

4.  What  Suggestions  do  you  consider  of  most  worth  for  Interest? 

5.  Think  out  definitely  how  you  propose  to  make  next  Sunday's  Lesson 

intrinsically  interesting. 

6.  Why  should  we  kill  Interest  at  times? 

7.  What  False  Views  of  Interest  are  prevalent? 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

♦Teacher  Training.     Roads,     pp.  81-83. 

The  Art  of  Questioning.     Fitch. 

The  Art  of  Teaching.     Fitch.     Chap.  VI. 

The  Foundations  of  Education.     Moore,     pp.  22-40. 

♦Adult  Bible  Cla.sses.     Wood. 

♦Teaching  of  Bible  Clas.ses.     See. 

Sunday  School  Science.     Holmes,     pp.  55-60. 

Pedagogical  Bible  School.     Haslett.     pp.  276-278. 

The  Art  of  Questioning. 

All  lesson  books  are  provided  with  questions ;  but  all  are  not 
good  questions.  All  teachers  question;  but  few  teachers  ques- 
tion either  properly  or  well.  Principal  Moore  has  given  two 
rules  on  questioning:  "(1)  Spend  your  time  in  questioning,  and 
not  in  lecturing.  (2)  Let  your  questions  be  those  of  a  teacher, 
and  not  of  an  examiner."  What  does  he  mean?  Miss  Caroline 
Leigh  ton  says,  from  Socrates,  "Ask  anyone  a  question  rather 
than  state  a  fact  to  him  if  you  would  arouse  his  interest." 
Uses  of  Questions. 

Fitcli  says,  in  his  little  handbook  on  the  Art  of  Ques- 
tioning :  "It  is  very  possible  for  a  teacher  in  a  Sunday  School 
to  be  fluent  in  speech,  earnest  in  manner,  happy  in  his  choice  of 
illustration,  and  to  be  a  very  inefficient  teacher  nevertheless. 
We  are  often  apt  to  think  it  enough  if  we  deliver  a  good  lesson, 
and  to  forget  that,  after  all,  its  value  depends  upon  the  degree 
in  which  it  is  really  received  and  appropriated  by  the  children. 
Now,  in  order  to  secure  that  what  we  teach  shall  really  enter 
their  minds,  and  be  duly  fixed  and  comprehended  there,  it  is 
above  all  tilings  necessary  that  we  should  be  able  to  use  effect- 
ively the  important  instrument  of  instruction  to  which  our  at- 
tention is  now  to  be  drawn."     Adding,  in  his  larger  book  on 


THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING  :i07 

Teaching,  that  we  use  Questions:  (1)  to  find  out  what  a  child 
knows,  in  order  to  prepare  him  for  further  learning.  This  is 
the  point  of  contact,  as  above,  finding  the  known  to  attach  the 
unknown.  (2)  To  discover  his  misconceptions  and  difficulties. 
(3)  To  secure  his  activity  and  attention  while  you  are  teaching 
him.  (4)  To  test  the  result  of  what  you  have  taught.  Dr. 
Roads  says :  "A  man's  knowledge  is  shown  as  much  by  the  ques- 
tions he  asks  as  by  those  he  can  answer."  C'hrist  and  Socrates 
were  the  ideal  interrogators. 

What  is  the  Effect  of  a  Question? 

ft  stirs  up  investigation,  leading  to  tlu;  answer  to  "Who?" 
''What?"  "How?"  etc.  It  awakens  the  dormant  memory;  it 
stimulates  curiosity  and  research;  it  develops  reasoning  power. 
Questioning  has  been  called  "the  shuttle  that  weaves  the  fabric" 
of  education.  "Any  fool  can  ask  a  question,"  says  the  proverb; 
and  Mr.  Holmes  naively  adds,  "No  fool  can  ask  a  wise  one." 
It  takes  careful  study  of  the  broadest  thought  to  frame  judicious 
questions.  Study  Plato's  Dialogues;  Socrates  in  Xenophon's 
Memorabilia;  and  above  all  the  questions  of  Jesus,  the  Ideal 
Questioner. 
Method  of  Sunday  School  Questioning. 

All  leading  educators  are  agreed  on  the  point  that  Lesson 
Books  should  not,  as  a  rule,  contain  Question  and  Answer.  The 
Answei'  should  be  sought  for.  Fitch  does  allow  that  the  Church 
Catechism  is  the  most  ideal  bit  of  Question-and-Answer  Pro- 
duction ever  framed;  but  even  this  must  be  cautiously  used. 
The  general  use  of  Question-and-/l?is«t'er  Books  is  unpedagogi- 
cal,  unnatural,  about  50  years  behind  the  times,  and,  fortunately, 
rapidly  passing  away.  Nor  should  the  answers  to  the  questions 
for  home  study  be  found  directly  with  the  questions.  The  pupil 
should  search  for  them,  as  near  to  the  original  Source  as  possi- 
ble. Again,  while  questions  in  text  books  for  home  study  are 
proper  guiding-strings  for  teacher  and  pupils,  the  best  and  the 
most  natural  work  in  class  will  be  accomplished  with  the  lesson 
books  laid  aside,  with  new  and  original  questions  asked  and  the 
lesson  "developed"  apparently  (though  not  really,  for  all  has 
been  carefully  planned  at  home)  offhand  by  the  teacher.  Imag- 
ine a  teacher  in  geography  in  public  school  (and  remember  your 


;JU8  RELKSIOUS   EDUCATION 

pupils  live  five  days  iu  that  atniosphero)  reading  with  difficulty, 
through  a  pair  of  glasses,  questions  on  the  location  of  New  Eng- 
land Manufactories,  as  she  bends  over  a  cramped  and  scrawly 
paper.  Says  Fitch :  "That  is  the  best  questioning  which  stimu- 
lates action  on  the  part  of  the  hearer,  and  gives  him  a  habit  of 
thinking  and  enquiring  for  himself — which  makes  him  rather 
a  skilful  finder  than  a  patient  receiver  of  the  truth."  There  is 
only  one  kind  of  action  we  can  surmise  as  likely  to  be  "stimu- 
lated" by  much  of  the  Sunday  School  Questioning.  Here  is  a 
sample  from  a  New  England  "Sabbath  School  Question  Book" 
of  a  few  years  since:  "Did  you  ever  read  in  your  library  books 
about  good  children  who  died  very  happy  ?"  "How  many  years 
of  Sabbaths  has  a  person  lived  who  is  fifty  years  old?"  "Which 
would  you  prefer  to  lose,  your  dinner  to-day,  or  your  Sunday 
School  instruction?"  Most  of  us  can  guess  what  the  reply  to 
this  interrogation  should  be! 

Kinds  of  Questions. 

Professor  F.  A.  Manny,  quoting  from  Fitch,  gives  three 
kinds:  (1)  Descriptive  Questions,  mere  fact,  with  typical  word 
"What?"  (2)  Narrative,  process  or  method,  with  typical  word 
"How?"  (3)  Explanatory,  meaning  or  use,  with  typical  word 
"Why?" 

Perhaps  a  simpler  and  better  division  of  Questions,  from  the 
view-point  of  internal  character,  is  that  of  Prof.  McMurry,  into 
Fact  Questions  and  Thought  Questions.  The  former  are  "Who?" 
"Where?"  "What?"  the  latter  are  "How?"  and  "Why?"  Fact 
(Questions  should  be  almost  the  exclusive  type  before  the  age  of 
8  or  9 ;  they  should  predominate,  with  some  Thought  Questions, 
from  that  age  to  Adolescence  (12  years  on)  ;  while  they  should 
be  subsidiary  to  Thought  Questions  from  Adolescence  onward. 
This  is  because  the  former  arc  concrete  and  belong  to  the  con- 
crete age,  the  age  of  Acquisition;  while  the  latter  are  more  ab- 
stract, and  come  in  gradually  as  Reflection  develops.  This 
differentiation  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind. 

Professor  McMurry,  looking  at  it  from  the  view-point  of 
the  lesson,  gives  (1)  Preliminary  Questions,  that  is  one  should 
start  off  with  some  broad,  searching,  all-round  Eeview  Question, 
that  gets  the  pupils  at  once  in  touch  with  the  lesson  for  the  day ; 


THE  ART  (JF  (HKSTIONING  ISO!) 

rounds  them  up,  so  to  speak;  collects  their  wits;  connects  the 
new  with  the  old ;  focuses  the  gist  of  the  previous  lessons  and 
connects  them  all  together  into  a  well-knit  scheme.  Some  large 
"left-over  problem"  from  previous  lesson;  some  wide  generali- 
zation that  would  come  from  the  comparison  of  a  large  number 
of  formerly  considered  facts,  such  are  excellent  "starters." 

(3)  Leading  Questions,  around  which  shorter,  subsidiary 
ones  are  wielded.  These  leading  questions  form  the  backbone  or 
skeleton  of  the  lesson  plan,  in  the  new  material. 

(3)  Frequent  Review  Questions,  which  sum  up  the  points 
)ua(le  thus  far  in  Jiew  work.  Children's  memories  are  short  at 
first,  and  their  "weaving  ability"  limited.  The  younger  the 
children,  the  more  needful  this  gathering  together  of  points  and 
loose  ends.  Every  five  minutes  or  so,  sum  up,  with  "Let's  see 
where  we  are.  What  new  facts  have  we  learned?"  This  re- 
capitulation drives  new  material  home  "apperceptively." 

(4)  Final  Review  Questions  that  gather  up  the  scheme  of 
the  entire  lesson.  Thus  we  also  connect  the  present  lesson  with 
a  few  words  on  the  following  one  for  next  week.  We  have  here 
again  the  "formal  steps"  of  teaching  reproduced  in  Questioning, 
i.e..  Preparation,  Presentation,  Association  or  Comparison,  Gen- 
eralization, Application. 

Questioning  as  viewed  by  Professor  Fitch  is  divided  by  him 
as  follows:  "Questions  as  employed  by  teachers  may  be  divided 
into  tJiree  classes,  according  to  the  purposes  which  they  may  be 
intended  to  serve.  There  is,  first,  the  preliminary  or  experimen- 
tal question,  by  which  an  instructor  feels  his  way,  sounds  the 
depths  of  his  pupils'  previous  knowledge,  and  prepares  them  for 
the  reception  of  what  it  is  designed  to  teach.  Then,  secondly, 
there  is  the  question  employed  in  actual  instruction,  by  means 
of  which  the  thoughts  of  the  learner  are  exercised,  and  he  is  com- 
pelled, so  to  speak,  to  take  a  share  in  giving  himself  the  lesson. 
Thirdly,  there  is  the  question  of  examination,  by  which  a  teacher 
tests  his  own  work  after  he  has  given  a  lesson  and  ascertains 
whether  it  has  been  soundly  and  thoroughly  learned.  If  we 
carefully  attend  to  this  distinction  we  shall  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  saying  of  a  very  eminent  teacher,  who  used  to 
say  of  the  interrogative  method,  that  by  it  he  first  questioned  the 


310  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

knowledge  into  the  niinrls  of  tlie  children,  and  then  questioned  it 
out  of  them  again." 

Curiosity  Kindled  by  Questions. 

Says  Fitch :  "It  is  chiefly  by  questions  judiciously  put  to  a 
child  before  you  give  him  a  lesson,  that  you  will  be  able  to  kindle 
this  curiosity,  to  make  him  feel  the  need  of  your  instruction, 
and  bring  his  intellect  into  a  wakeful  and  teachable  condition. 
Wliatever  you  may  have  to  give  in  the  way  of  new  knowledge 
will  then  have  a  far  better  chance  of  being  understood.  For  you 
may  take  it  as  a  rule  in  teaching,  that  the  mind  always  refuses 
to  receive — certainly  to  retain — any  isolated  knowledge.  We 
remember  only  those  facts  and  principles  which  link  themselves 
with  what  we  knew  before,  or  with  what  we  hope  to  know  or  are 
likely  to  want  hereafter.  Try,  therefore,  to  establish,  in  every 
case,  a  logical  connection  between  what  you  teach  and  what  your 
pupils  knew  before.  Make  your  new  information  a  sort  of  de- 
velopment of  the  old,  the  expansion  of  some  germ  of  thought  or 
inquiry  which  lay  hid  in  the  child's  mind  before.  Seek  to  bring 
to  light  what  your  pupil  already  possesses,  and  you  will  then 
always  see  your  way  more  clearly  to  a  proper  adaptation  of  your 
teaching  to  his  needs." 
How  to  Learn  How  to  Question. 

llohnes  tells  us  (1)  Listen  to  the  questions  of  children. 
(2)  Ask  questions  often  of  others.  (3)  Write  questions  out  at 
home  on  each  lesson.  This  should  always  be  done  to  clarify  the 
lesson  in  your  own  mind  and  give  you  confidence  and  ease,  no 
matter  if  the  lesson  be  supplied  with  good  questions  already. 
Make  up  new  ones.  (4)  Study  Question  Books.  This  is  about 
the  only  use  we  can  see  in  most  of  the  Series  of  such  manuals 
extant. 
Character  of  Questions  You  Are  to  Form. 

Fitch  gives  the  following  helpful  and  pregnant  suggestions 
and  maxims : 

1.  The  language  of  questions.  Cultivate  great  simplicity 
of  language.  Use  as  few  words  as  possible,  and  let  them  be  such 
as  are  adapted  to  the  age  and  capacity  of  the  class  you  are  teach- 
ing. Eemember  that  questions  are  not  meant  to  display  your 
own  learning  or  acquirements,  but  to  bring  out  those  of  the 


TIIK  ART  OF  QUESTIONING  311 

oliildren.  II  is  a  great  point  in  (juestioning  to  say  as  little  as 
possible;  and  so  to  say  that  little  as  to  cause  the  children  to  say  as 
much  as  possible.  Conduct  your  lessons  in  such  a  way  that  if  a 
visitor  or  superintendent  be  standing  by,  his  attention  will  be 
directed,  not  to  you,  but  to  your  pupils;  and  his  admiration 
excited,  not  by  your  skill  and  keenness,  but  by  the  amount  of 
mental  activity  displayed  on  their  part. 

2.  Not  to  give  information  in  the  questions.  Do  not  tell 
much  in  your  question.  Never,  if  you  can  help  it,  communicate 
a  fact  in  your  question.  Contrive  to  educe  every  fact  from  the 
class.  It  is  better  to  pause  for  a  moment,  and  to  put  one  or  two 
subordinate  questions,  with  a  view  to  bring  out  the  truths  you  are 
seeking,  than  to  tell  anything  which  the  children  could  tell  you. 
A  good  teacher  never  conveys  information  in  the  form  of  a 
question.  If  he  tells  his  class  something,  it  is  not  long  before 
he  makes  his  class  tell  him  the  same  thing  again;  but  his  ques- 
tion never  assumes  the  same  form,  or  employs  the  same  phrase- 
ology as  his  previous  statement;  for,  if  it  does,  the  form  of  the 
question  really  suggests  the  answer,  and  the  exercise  fails  to 
challenge  the  judgment  and  memory  of  the  children  as  it  ought 
to  do. 

3.  Get  entire  sentences  for  answers.  A  teacher  ought  not, 
in  fact,  to  be  satisfied  until  he  can  get  entire  sentences  for 
answers.  These  sentences  will  generally  be  paraphrases  of  the 
words  used  in  the  lesson,  and  the  materials  for  making  the  para- 
phrases will  have  been  developed  in  the  course  of  the  lesson  by 
demanding,  in  succession,  meanings  and  equivalent  for  all  the 
principal  words.  Eemember  that  the  mere  ability  to  fill  up  a 
parenthetical  or  elliptical  sentence  proves  nothing  beyond  the 
possession  of  a  little  tact  and  verbal  memory.  It  is  worth  while 
to  turn  around  sharply  on  some  inattentive  member  of  the  class, 
or  upon  some  one  who  has  just  given  a  mechanical  answer,  "Tell 
me  what  we  have  just  learned  about  such  a  person."  Observe 
that  the  answer  required  to  such  a  question  must  necessarily  be 
a  whole  sentence ;  it  will  be  impossible  to  answer  it  without  a 
real  effort  of  thought  and  of  judgment. 

4.  Do  not  put  vague  questions.  It  is  of  great  importance, 
also,  that  questions  should  be  definite  and  unmistakable,  and.  for 
the  most  part,  that  they  admit  of  but  one  answer.    An  unskillful 


312  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

teacher  puts  vague,  wide  questions,  such  as,  ''What  did  he  do?" 
"What  didAhraham  say?"  "How  did  Josepli  feel  at  such  a  time?" 
"What  lesson  ought  we  to  learn  from  this?"  questions  to  which  no 
doubt  he  sees  the  right  answer,  because  it  is  already  in  iiis  mind  ; 
but  which,  perhaps,  admit  of  several  equally  good  answers,  ac- 
cording to  the  way  the  different  minds  would  look  at  them.  He 
does  not  think  of  this;  he  fancies  that  what  is  so  clear  to  him 
ought  to  be  equally  clear  to  others ;  he  forgets  that  the  minds  of 
the  children  may  be  moving  on  other  rails,  so  to  speak,  even 
though  directed  to  the  same  object.  So,  when  an  answer  comes 
which  is  not  the  one  he  expected,  even  though  it  is  a  perfectly 
legitimate  one,  he  rejects  it;  while,  if  any  child  is  fortunate 
enough  to  give  the  precise  answer  which  was  in  the  teacher's 
mind,  he  is  commended  and  rewarded,  even  though  he  has  ex- 
erted no  more  thought  on  the  subject. 

5.  Do  not  ask  Questions  that  cannot  be  answered.  For 
similar  reasons  it  is  generally  necessary  to  abstain  from  giving 
questions  to  which  we  have  no  reasonal)le  right  to  expect  an 
answer.  Technical  terms,  and  information  children  are  not 
likely  to  possess,  ought  not  to  be  demanded.  Nor  should  ques- 
tions be  repeated  to  those  who  cannot  answer.  A  still  more 
objectionable  practice  is  that  of  suggesting  the  first  word  or  two 
of  a  sentence,  or  pronouncing  the  first  syllable  of  a  word  which 
the  children  do  not  recollect.  All  these  errors  generate  a  habit 
of  guessing  among  the  scholars,  and  we  should  ever  bear  in  mind 
that  there  is  no  one  habit  more  fatal  to  accurate  thinking,  or 
more  likely  to  encourage  shallowness  and  self-deception,  than 
this.  It  should  be  discountenanced  in  every  possible  way;  and 
the  most  effective  way  is  to  study  well  the  form  of  our  questions, 
to  consider  well  whether  they  are  quite  intelligible  and  unequivo- 
cal to  those  to  whom  they  are  addressed,  and  to  limit  them  to 
those  points  on  which  we  have  a  right  to  expect  clear  and  definite 
answers. 

6.  Do  not  give  questions  that  only  require  "Yes"  or  "No" 
for  an  answer.  There  is  a  class  of  questions  which  hardly  de- 
serve the  name,  and  which  are,  in  fact,  fictitious  or  apparent,  but 
not  true  questions.  I  mean  those  which  simply  require  the 
answer  "Yes"  or  "No."  Nineteen  such  questions  out  of  twenty 
carry  their  own  answers  in  them;  for  it  is  almost  impossible  to 


TTTK  ART  OF  (,)r'ESTrON[Xf;  313 

propose  one  without  revealing,  by  the  tone  and  inflexion  of  the 
voice,  the  kind  of  answer  you  expect.  For  example:  "Is  it  right 
to  honor  om-  paiciiis  V  "Did  Abraham  show  much  faith  when 
he  offered  up  his  son?''  "Do  you  think  the  author  of  the  Psalms 
was  a  good  man?"'  "Were  the  Pharisees  really  lovers  of  truth?" 
Questions  like  these  elicit  no  thought  whatever;  there  are  but 
two  possible  answers  to  each  of  them,  and  of  these  I  am  sure  to 
show,  by  my  manner  of  putting  the  question,  which  one  I  expect. 
Such  questions,  should,  therefore,  as  a  general  rule,  be  avoided, 
as  they  seldom  serve  any  useful  purpose,  either  in  teaching  or 
examining.  For  every  question,  it  must  be  remembered,  ought 
to  require  an  effort  to  answer  it;  it  may  be  an  effort  of  memory, 
or  an  effort  of  imagination,  or  an  effort  of  judgment,  or  an  effort 
of  perception ;  it  may  be  a  considerable  effort  or  it  may  be  a 
slight  one,  but  it  must  be  an  effort;  and  a  question  which  chal- 
lenges no  mental  exertion  whatever,  and  does  not  make  the 
learner  think,  is  wortli  nothing.  Hence,  however  such  simple 
adirnuitive  and  negative  replies  may  look  like  work,  they  may  co- 
exist with  utter  stagnation  of  mind  on  the  part  of  the  scholars, 
and  with  complete  ignorance  of  what  we  are  attempting  to  teach. 

7.  ]\[ake  questions  that  are  clear,  and  without  doubt  as  to 
meaning.  Do  not  have  those  that  are  capable  of  two  or  more 
answers,  as  "Who  was  an  Apostle  of  Jesus?" 

8.  Make  questions  as  short  as  possible.  One  question  seen 
recently  had  thirty-four  words  in  it.  Lawyers'  "hypothetical 
questions"  may  be  interesting  to  us,  but  not  to  children.  You 
need  not  state  numerous  facts,  as  preliminary  to  your  interroga- 
tion point. 

9.  Place  your  questions  in  definite,  progressive,  planned- 
out  order.     You  want  order  in  recitation. 

10.  Ask  questions  of  a  composite  enough  character  that 
your  answers  require  thought. 

ff.  Questions  should  be  animated  and  lively,  not  dull  and 
dead.     Live  issues  should  be  selected,  and  the  manner  bright. 

12.  Wrong  ansM^ers  should  NOT  be  repeated,  since  this 
only  assists  in  making  the  wrong  impression  stronger. 

13.  Throw  out  questions  for  research  and  personal  indi- 
vidual investigation  perhaps  even  from  other  than  usual  lesson 
sources.     Let  pupils  question  each  other,  thus  provoking  the 


;n4  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

spirit  of  inquiry.  The  gist  and  basis  of  all  fruitful  recitation 
work  in  class  will  be  the  cultivation  of  "The  Inquiring  Spirit" 
so  that  pupils  constantly  ask  "Who?"  "What?"  "How?" 
"When?"  etc. 

14.  Propound  the  question  first  and  call  the  name  of  the 
student  who  is  to  answer  afterwards.  This  will  insure  the 
attention  of  all  because  of  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  person  who  is 
to  answer.  No  intimation  should  be  given  to  the  student  who  is 
expected  to  reply  even  by  looking  at  him  while  the  question  is 
being  framed. 

15.  Questions  should  not  be  asked  of  members  of  the  class 
in  regular  rotation,  either  in  alphabetical  order  or  in  the  order 
of  their  seating.  In  order  to  insure  an  opportunity  for  all  to 
recite,  the  names  of  members  of  the  class  might  be  written  on 
slips,  shuffled  together  and  then  drawn  out  at  random. 

IG.  Address  questions  to  the  inattentive,  but  do  not  repeat 
the  question  if  in  their  inattention  they  have  not  heard  it.  Ques- 
tions should  be  put  with  promptness  and  animation.  Alert 
questions  will  stimulate  prompt  replies.  While  questions  should 
follow  one  another  without  delay,  reasonable  time  should  be 
given  for  an  intelligent  reply. 

17.  In  his  Primer  Professor  Adams  points  out  that:  "It 
is  a  mistake  to  ask  questions  which  involve  long  answers,  par- 
ticularly in  the  case  of  the  younger  pupils.  It  is  one  thing  to 
know;  it  is  another  to  express.  A  child  may  know  not  only  the 
story  implied  in  a  parable,  but  also  the  underlying  meaning, 
and  yet  be  unable  to  'Give  an  account  of  the  parable.  At  the 
early  stages  all  questions  should  be  direct;  i.e.,  they  should  be 
real  questions  demanding  definite  answers." 

18.  Again  according  to  Professor  Adams :  "To  be  simple 
a  question  need  not  be  easy.  'Who  is  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Hebrews?'  is  a  simple  but  very  difficult  question.  What  is 
specially  meant  by  simplicity  in  questions  is  what  may  be  called 
their  singleness,  i.  e.,  only  one  thing  should  be  asked  at  a  time. 
Teachers  who  do  not  prepare  their  work  not  infrequently  stumble 
into  questions  which  involve  several  independent  answers;  and 
still  more  frequently  they  change  the  form  of  the  question  two 
or  three  times  before  they  finally  leave  it  for  the  pupil.  This 
careless  'thinking  aloud,'  this  making  up  of  questions  that  ought 


THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING  315 

lo  have  been  carefully  prepared  beforehand,  is  disconcerting  to 
tiic  ]n)])ils,  who  frequently  answer  some  of  the  rejected  forms  of 
the  question  instead  of  the  final  form." 

Adolescence  and  Adult  Classes. 

Professor  Irving  Wood  of  Smith  College  has  written  a  book 
on  AuuLT  Bible  Classes  which  with  Professor  See's  Book,  The 
Teaching  of  Bible  Classes  are  the  only  two  handbooks  for 
these  ages,  both  of  which  should  be  carefully  studied. 

Professor  Wood  says:  "The  adult  Bible  class  teacher  must 
never  forget  that  he  is  not  doing  elementary  teaching.  His 
object  is  not  to  see  that  his  class  knows  certain  facts,  and  to 
drill  it  until  it  does.  He  may  be  obliged  continually  to  teach 
facts.  So  is  the  university  teacher,  however  advanced  his  pupils 
may  be  in  the  subject.  They  should  be  taught,  however,  by  re- 
lation to  other  facts,  not  by  the  dead  lift  of  memory  and  repe- 
tition. Speaking  broadly,  the  adult  class  has  no  place  for  the 
repetition-purpose  of  questioning. 

"The  second  purpose  of  questioning,  to  help  the  students  to 
think  for  themselves,  is  never  out  of  place.  The  wise  teacher 
begins  its  use  very  early.  What  is  the  principle  of  the  Kinder- 
garten, and  most  of  the  newer  methods  of  education,  but  this? 
It  marks  the  difference  between  Eastern  and  Western  education. 
The  Chinese  student  commits  to  memory  his  classics.  The 
Western  student  is  trained  to  independent  thought  and  criti- 
cism. That  means  a  very  vast  difference  in  the  ideals  of  civili- 
zation. It  is  the  difference  between  the  methods  by  which  Socra- 
tes and  Confucius  taught.  Socrates  asked  questions  'to  bring 
thought  to  birth,'  Confucius  made  a  collection  of  older  litera- 
ture to  be  learned  and  repeated. 

"I  cannot  help  feeling,  however,  that  where  a  teacher  and  a 
class  are  in  perfect  rapport,  questioning  will  lose  its  predomi- 
nance in  adult  teaching.  At  best  questioning  is  a  drawing  out 
process.  The  best  adult  class  does  not  need  to  be  drawn  out.  It 
comes  out  of  itself  when  the  opportunity  is  given.  Will  your 
class  rise  to  a  suggestion,  thrown  out  like  a  bait?  If  so,  why 
use  the  bare,  cold  question?  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the 
adult  class  teacher  will  do  well  to  minimize  the  question  as  much 
as  possible.    Let  him  plan  his  work  on  the  lines  of  suggestion, 


Iil6  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

rather  than  of  question,  and  aim  to  use  the  question  only  when 
the  more  delicate  and  less  obtrusive  means  fail.  If  this  can  be 
done  there  will  be  less  exhibition  of  the  machinery  of  teaching 
and  more  ease  and  smoothness  in  the  flow  of  the  class  work. 

"Many  things  may  be  done  best  by  indirection.  This  is  one 
of  them.  A  teacher  cannot  make  a  class  talk  by  command ;  and 
if  he  could,  the  talk  would  not  be  worth  much.  To  niake  them 
talk  by  entreaty  is  not  much  less  absurd.  In  social  life  people 
get  so  by  long  practice  that  they  can  'make  conversation/  which 
is  a  very  fair  imitation  of  the  genuine  article,  but  a  class  never 
acquires  that  skill.    It  must  be  genuine  or  be  nothing." 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND   DISCUSSION. 

[suggested   by    prof.    MANNY.] 

1.  "Study  carefully  the  method  of  Questioning  used  by  Socrates.    Is 

this  method  applicable  to  work  with  children?" 

2.  "Notice  the  Questions  put  by  teachers  and  superintendent  in  Sunday 

School.  Classify  them,  and  compare  them  with  Questions  of  gen- 
eral use  in  Day  Schools,  by  Children  playing  in  their  games, 
by  a  lawyer  examining  a  witness." 

3.  "What  part  of  the  Questions  used  in  your  class  do  you  ask?    What 

proportion  is  asked  by  your  scholars?  Which  kind  is  the  more 
efficient?    Why?" 

4.  "What  uses  do  you  make  of  the  'left-over'  Questions  ?" 

5.  "Do  you  address  Questions  first  to  the  individual  and  then  to  the 

class,  or  ince  versa?    Which  plan  do  you  find  the  better?" 

6.  How  should  adolescent  and  adult  classes  be  handled? 


CHAPTER  XVllI. 

HOW  TO   USE  STORIES  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

•Teacheu  Training.     Roads,     pp.  72-71. 

Sunday  School  Science.     Holmes,     pp.  48-50;  62-63. 

I'ICTLKES    AND    I'iCTUUE    WOUK.       HcrVClJ. 

Teacheu  Training.     Roads,     p.  84. 

i'oNTE.NT  OF  Children's  Minds.     Hall.     pp.  55-56. 

•Newer  Methods  for  the  Junior  Class.     Lee.     pp.  13-15. 

*now  TO  I'LAN  THE  LESSON.     Brown.     p.  47. 

The  New  rsYciiOLOGY.     Oordif. 

The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.     Gregory,     pp.  19,  57,  74. 

1'edagogical  Kible  School.     Haslett.     pp.  248-251,  262. 

Illustrations  and  How  to  Use  Them — Stories  and  Parables. 

We  have  already  taken  notice  of  the  strong  part  which  Im- 
agination phiys  in  tlie  child-life.  Imagination  develops  shortly 
after  Perception,  and  requires  wise  training  just  as  it  does. 
We  recognize  that  a  child  exaggerates  and  seemingly  lies,  be- 
cause it  does  not  perceive  properly;  and  we  accordingly  educate 
the  perceptions  to  truer  discernment,  through  more  careful  ob- 
servation. The  Imagination  is  of  value  because  through  Stories 
and  Illustrations  we  reach  the  child's  mind  and  the  child's  in- 
terests in  a  concrete  form.  This  is  the  avenue  of  approach,  the 
point  of  contact,  by  which  Bible  truth  may  be  imparted,  without 
dullness.  Stanley  Hall  once  said  that  of  all  things  which  a 
teacher  should  know  how  to  do,  the  most  important,  without  any 
exception,  is  to  be  able  to  tell  a  story.  It  is  almost  the  main 
part  of  teaching.     The  child's  thirst  for  stories  is  marvellous. 

The  Canon  of  Worcester  says :  "In  the  education  of  the 
young,  and  of  the  less  reflective  of  our  people,  it  would  seem  to 
be  quite  impossible — at  any  rate,  no  attempt  has  been  successful 
— to  teach  abstract  truth,  or  morality,  except  through  parables, 
stories  and  metaphors,  so  that  it  may  be  the  more  easily  appre- 
hended, and  the  mere  imagery  laid  aside  when  the  mind  ripens." 


.3JH  KKLKJIOIJS   EDUCATION 

MifiR  liCo  says:  "Li  I  lie  cliiMi'cii  love  stories  and  can  be  ap- 
pealed lo  1)}'  slorics  in  a  unique  way;  and  the  vehicle  of  spir- 
itual trutli  for  thcin  niust  mainly  be  Story-telling.  We  note  how 
conspicuous  a  place  was  talasn  by  story  and  parable  in  our  Lord's 
tea(;liin<r.  'I'y  a  panible/  the  [Xioph;  ('children'  in  spiritual  mat- 
ters) were  mainly  taught.  Qu(;stions  were  answered,  difTicultics 
nicl,  ill  ;iii  indirect,  not  dircci,  nidliod,  by  a  story;  and  stories, 
(oo,  in  wliich  hearers  as  a  rule  W(!r(!  trusted  to  find  their  own 
nionil  and  deduce  their  own  application,  unless  as  individuals 
they  desired  further  (sxydanation.  What  is  it  that  attracts  ttie 
little  child  to  the  story?  'Slory  telling  is  a  veritable  spirit  bath,' 
Sfiys  Froebel.  'Kyc,  hniid,  and  car  op(;n  to  the  genuine  story- 
teller. The  boy  sees  life  refl(!c;ted  in  the  story.'  The  story  shows 
life  to  the  boy  and  so  needs  to  show,  in  these  early  all-impres- 
sion;d)I(!  years,  the  best  of  life." 

The  Purpose  of  Using  Stories. 

Jlolmes  names  i]\v('.()  fiims  in  story-telling:  (1)  To  win 
attention.  Nothing  will  do  it  like  a  story.  I'ry  it  wiOi  a  rest- 
less class  and  see  the  result.  (2)  To  anclior  Truth  in  inemory. 
Stories  are  like  pegs  on  which  facts  are  hung.  Stories,  as  Dr. 
Roads  puts  it,  "are  intellectual  (;ye-glasses,"  through  which  wc 
see  the  truth  more  clearly  and  thus  remember  it  more  readily. 
(3)  To  r|nickcn  and  stimulate  thought.  The  subject  is  dwelt  on 
longer,  is  looked  at  from  manifold  vi(!W-points,  and  lience  is 
thought  about  more. 

To  Wliat  in  tlie  Child  Does  Illustration  Appeal? 

]l(!re  again,  Mr.  Holmes  is  suggestive.  Illustration  appeals 
"(I)  to  Sight.  It  appeals  to  the  eye.  It  lays  before  it  pictures, 
maps,  objects,  and  causes  it  to  see  in  these  things  likenesses  of 
truth,  or  evidences  of  what  has  occurred,  or  the  places  where 
things  have  occurred  in  their  relations  to  the  pupil's  own  time 
and  place.  (2)  To  Memory.  It  appeals  to  the  memory,  and 
asks  it  to  reproduce  from  its  store  the  full  particulars  of  some- 
thing which  it  suggests  in  part.  (3)  To  Touch.  It  comes  to 
the  hand,  and  asks  it  to  helf)  in  giving  an  idea  of  length,  breadth, 
height,  etc.,  by  serving  itself  as  a  measure.  (4)  To  Imagina- 
tion. Here  it  opens  a  wonderful  world.  Here  are  aroused  simi- 
les, metaphors,  vivid  portraits  in  lli(>  picture  gallery  of  jhc  brain. 


now  TO  T'SE   STORTKS  ANIJ    I  f.lJ  STRA'I'IONS  .'!!!) 

It  is  the  woild  of  illustrative  fictions,  not  falsehood,  but  fietiouH, 
figments,  tilings  made  in  this  enchanted  chamber  of  the  brain. 
(5)  To  Keason.  It  lays  hold  on  the  logical  faculties  and  makes 
them  serve.  Comparisons  are  nuule  between  tiiitli  and  nutnrid 
objects." 

Dangers  in   Illustration. 

Several  dangers  are  mentioned  by  the  same  author  that  are 
worth  considering  here:  (1)  Some  persons  use  too  much  Illus- 
tration. They  are  like  college  boys  who  spend  too  much  time 
on  the  football  field  to  the  neglect  of  their  studies.  Jt  is  as  if  a 
house  were  all  decoration  outside  with  no  furniture  within.  (2) 
Some  IllustrationB  are  too  broad.  Fiction  and  truth  are  too 
much  blended,  or  rather  there  has  been  too  much  fiction.  The 
Truth  is  lost  sight  of  in  the  haystack  of  fiction.  They  carry  aid 
to  some  thought  far  from  their  user's  purpose.  They  often 
defeat  the  end  of  their  use.  Of  such  beware.  (3)  Illustrations 
are  used  too  carelessly.  They  illustrate  too  much,  and  so  de- 
feat their  own  end.  Some  persons  occasionally  use  Illustra- 
tions only  for  effect,  to  cover  up  insufficient  preparation. 

Characteristics  of  a  Good   Illustration. 

Dr.  Hervey,  a  master  in  illustrating,  has  devoted  an  entire 
book  to  Picture  Work.  He  notes  two  distinctions  to  be  always 
borne  in  mind :  ( 1 )  The  Main  Story,  the  skeleton  on  which 
we  build.  "Not  merely  for  children,  but  for  grown  folk,  too,  is 
picture-work  a  means  of  teaching.  In  a  densely  populated  quar- 
ter of  New  York  City  there  is  to-day  a  minister  who  is  not  con- 
tent with  mere  word  pictures.  He  brings  into  the  pulpit  the 
objects  themselves — it  may  be  a  candle,  a  plumb-line,  a  live  frog, 
an  air  pump.  With  him  the  method  is  a  success,  as  it  has  been 
with  others.  Does  this  seem  crude?  So  are  the  mental  pro- 
cesses of  every  forty-nine  out  of  fifty  the  world  over.  We  never 
can  know  anything  without  having  something  to  know  it  with. 
A  'like'  is  the  key  that  enables  us  to  unlock  and  to  enter  the 
door  of  the;  unknown."  (2)  Its  Side  Lights,  or  environment, 
60  to  speak. 

The  Main  Story  corresponds  to  the  outline  of  a  picture,  the 
skeleton ;  the  side  lights  to  the  finished  background,  the  filled-in 
atmosphere.     It  has  been  claimed  by  some  educators  that  the 


;320  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

wood  engraving  or  line-cut  picture,  being  outline  and  sketchy, 
appeals  more  to  the  smaller  child,  while  the  half-tone  does  to 
the  older  pu})il.  This  does  not  necessarily  follow  from  a  study  of 
child-nature.  Granted  that  the  small  child  does  draw  at  first 
only  in  outline :  granted  also  that  he  is  highly  imaginative  and 
symbolic,  and  that  he  reads  much  more  into  that  outline  sketch 
than  do  we  adults,  yet  the  small  child  does  not  draw  in  outline 
because  he  ivants  to,  but  because  he  has  to.  The  grosser  and 
larger  muscular  movements  are  developed  first,  then  the  more 
delicate  and  highly-specialized  ones.  The  child  does  not  talk 
"baby-talk"  because  he  wants  to,  but  because  his  tongue  cannot 
yet  imitate  accurately  the  more  delicate  sounds  in  specialized 
muscular  action.  You  do  not  help  him  to  get  nearer  the  right 
pronunciation  by  talking  "baby-talk"  back  to  him.  He  will 
realize  his  imitative  struggles  all  the  sooner  by  hearing  the  right 
syllablization.  So  with  stories  and  pictures,  the  full  and  natural 
portrayal,  the  picture  as  Nature  presents  it,  with  all  its  back- 
ground and  lights  and  shadows,  is  the  more  correct  mood  of 
presentation. 
"The  Good  Story  Should  Have  the  Following  Marks: 

"(1)  The  sioi'y  must  have  a  beginning,  concrete,  interest- 
compelling,  curiosity-piquing.  'All  things  have  two  handles; 
beware  of  the  wrong  one.'  (3)  It  must  have  a  climax,  properly 
led  up  to,  easily  led  down  from;  and  that  never  missed.  (3) 
Many  good  stories  have  rhythm,  recurrence,  repetition  of  the  hit 
niotiv.  'The  Three  Bears'  is  a  favorite  for  this  reason,  among 
others.  The  commands  of  the  Lord  to  Moses  were  regularly  re- 
peated thrice  in  the  Bible  story;  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  the 
sonorous  catalog  of  flute,  harp,  sackbut  and  the  rest,  comes  in 
none  too  often  for  the  purposes  of  the  story-teller.  (4)  All 
good  stories  have  unity;  parts  well  subordinated;  the  main  les- 
son unmistakably  clear;  the  point,  whether  tactfully  hidden  or 
brought  out  by  skilful  questions,  never  missed."  Dr.  Eoads 
puts  it  another  way  :  "  ( 1 )  The  Illustration  must  be  transparent, 
and  not  in  itself  so  attractive  as  to  fi.x  the  attention.  (3)  Yet  it 
should  be  so  interesting  as  to  give  the  truth  a  fresh  setting. 
(3)  The  Illustration  is  for  the  Truth,  not  the  Truth  for  the 
Illustration." 


Il(»\\    TO    I  SK   STOI.MKS   AM)    I  I.LLSTilATlU^•S  liiil 

Points  to  be  Remembered  in  Story  Telling. 

Savs  |)i-.  Ilcrvcy  again:  "(1)  Use  direct  discourse.  That 
is,  to  liavi'  llu'  stoi;y  vivid,  put  in  so  I'ar  as  may  be  in  runninj^, 
})orsonal,  dt'scrijjtive  I'orni,  leaving  out  the  third  person.  It  will 
require  an  ell'ort  to  keep  yourself  (in  your  embarrassment)  from 
taking  refuge  behind  the  indirect  form,  saying,  for  example, 
'And  when  he  came  to  himself  he  said  that  he  would  rise  and  go 
to  his  father  and  tell  him  that  he  had  sinned.'  (2)  Choose 
actions  rather  than  descriptions,  the  dynamics  rather  than  the 
statistics  of  your  subjects — your  story  will  thus  have  'go,'  as  all 
Bible  stories  have.  Those  of  us  who  have  growji  away  from 
childhood  tend  to  reverse  the  true  order,  to  place  the  emphasis 
on  the  question,  'What  kind  of  a  man  is  lie,'  aiul  not  on,  'what 
did  he  do.'  Let  what  he  did  tell  wliat  he  was.  (3)  Use  con- 
crete terms,  not  aljsfract :  tell  what  was  done,  not  how  somebody 
felt  or  thought  when  something  was  done;  be  objective,  not  .sub- 
jective. (1)  .1  storij-teller  should  have  taste.  To  form  tins 
taste  it  is  indispensable  that  he  should  not  read,  but  drinl-  in 
the  great  masters:  Homer,  Chaucer,  Bunyan,  Hawthorne  ('The 
Wonder  Book,'  for  example),  and  above  all  the  Bible  itself. 
No  one  can  absorb  these  without  unconsciously  forming  a  pui-e, 
simple  style  and  getting  a  more  childlike  point  of  view  and  way 
of  speech,  ilodern  writers  and  modern  ways  of  thinking  are, 
in  general,  too  reflective,  self-conscious,  subjective,  and  where 
children  are  concerned,  too  direct,  bare,  'preachy.'  (5)  The 
secret  of  story-telling  lies — frst  of  all,  in  being  full — /"////  of 
the  stori/,  the  picture,  the  children;  and  then  in  being  morally 
and  spiritually  up  to  concert-pitch,  which  is  the  true  source  of 
power  in  anything.  From  these  comes  spontaneity;  what  is 
within  must  come  out;  the  story  tells  itself;  and  of  your  fulness 
the  children  all  receive."  Dr.  l^)ads  enlarges:  "By  being  spirit- 
ually minded  always  and  deepening  the  spiritual  life,  so  that 
spiritual  analogies  and  truths  may  be  seen  in  all  that  is  seen,  or 
read,  or  experienced.  The  teacher  must  have  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  truth  he  would  illustrate.  He  cannot  show  what 
h(>  does  not  see." 

Brief  Rules. 

Finally.    Dr.    Ilervey   sums   up   his   suggestions   as   to   the 


322  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

story:  "(1)  Sec  it.  If  you  are  to  make  others  see  it,  you  must 
see  it  yourself.  (2)  Feel  it.  If  it  is  to  touch  your  class,  it 
must  first  have  touched  you.  (3)  Shorten  it.  It  is  probably 
too  long.  Brevity  is  the  soul  of  story-telling.  (4)  Expand  it. 
It  is  probably  meagre  in  necessary  background,  in  details.  (5) 
Master  it.  Practise.  Kepetition  is  the  mother  of  stories  well 
told;  readiness,  the  secret  of  classes  well  held.  (6)  Repeat  it. 
Don't  be  afraid  of  re-telling  a  good  story.  The  younger  chil- 
dren are,  the  better  they  like  old  friends.  But  everyone  loves  a 
'twice-told  tale.'  "  He  adds :  "The  'wholes'  of  Scripture  narra- 
tive, whole  books,  whole  lives,  whole  stories  told  as  wholes  by  the 
teacher  or  by  a  single  pupil,  and  not  picked  out  piecemeal  by  the 
teacher  from  halting  individuals — these  are  the  things  that  in 
the  class  give  interest  and  that  in  the  mind  live  and  grow  and 
bear  fruit.  'Moral  power  is  the  effect  of  large,  unbroken  masses 
of  thought;  in  these  alone  can  a  strong  interest  be  developed,' 
and  from  these  alone  can  a  steady  will  spring." 

Referring  to  the  art  of  story-telling,  Mizpah  S.  Greene 
says :  "One  reason  why  the  story  arouses  so  much  interest  in  the 
mind  of  a  child  is  because  it  presents  events  to  him  in  wholes. 
Thus,  he  is  not  satisfied  with  parts  of  stories;  the  beginning,  the 
middle,  or  the  end  alone,  but  he  insists  upon  hearing  the  com- 
plete story.  A  usually  attentive  little  girl  showed  her  evident 
discontent  and  lack  of  interest  while  her  Sabbath-school  teacher 
was  telling,  in  an  interesting  manner,  the  story  of  David  and 
Goliath.  The  child's  dissatisfaction  was  so  plainly  shown  that 
at  length  the  teacher  asked,  a  little  impatiently,  'What  is  the 
matter,  Anna?  Don't  you  like  to  bear  all  about  brave  David 
and  how  he  conquered  the  terrible  giant?'  'You  didn't  tell  us 
about  David  as  a  little  boy,  and  how  he  grew  to  be  so  strong  and 
brave,'  was  the  child's  reply,  followed  by  a  shower  of  tears." 

Professor  Adams  says:  "While  the  chapter-interest  dies 
with  each  chapter,  the  story-interest  goes  on  increasing  from 
chapter  to  chapter.  So  in  teaching — the  lesson-interest  should 
run  down  at  the  end  of  each  lesson,  but  the  interest  of  the  course 
as  a  whole  should  rise  from  lesson  to  lesson." 

Dr.  William  M.  Taylor,  as  quoted  by  Dr.  Hervey,  told  once 
of  a  conversation  with  a  carpenter,  in  which  he  advised  him  to 
use  certain  decorations.     "That,"  said   the  carpenter,   "would 


IIOU'   TO   I  8E   STORIES  AM)    ll.LlSTRATiONS  .'.i.} 

violate  the  first  rule  of  architecture.  We  must  never  construct 
ornament,  but  only  ornament  construction."  So  it  is  in  story- 
telling. 

How  to   Learn    How. 

llervey,  Holmes,  Koads,  Gregory,  everyone  who  has  written 
on  Teaching,  add  suggestions  on  cultivating  this  Art  of  Illustra- 
tion, for  it  is  an  art,  one  of  the  greatest  arts.  Like  every  other 
art,  it  demands  study  (incessant  study)  and — practice.  Here 
is  the  gist : 

Study  Models.  As  in  all  imitative  arts,  we  learn  best 
by  noting  how  others  acted  and  spoke,  (a)  Ancient  models. 
Socrates,  a  master  in  the  art.  Christ,  the  most  ideal  Story- 
teller. Eead  His  Parables,  without  a  word  of  alteration  or 
enlargement,  and  you  have  the  most  attractive  stories.  If  you 
ever  tell  the  like,  you  may  be  well  satisfied.  The  art  of  illus- 
tration reached  perfection  in  Him.  Eead  the  discourses  of  Jesus 
and  see  what  wealth  of  illustration  is  in  them. 

(h)  Modern.  Eead  Spurgeon,  especially  Joiiisr  Plol'gii- 
man's  Talks.  They  are  homely,  terse,  rugged,  telling.  Moody, 
whose  Bible  stories  are  marvellous.  As  he  put  it,  he  "simply 
took  the  old  dead  skeletons  and  put  living  flesh  on  their  bones, 
and  made  them  walk  among  us."  Every  teacher  should  own 
and  read  one  volume  of  Moody.  In  English  literature,  study 
Chaucer.  IMark  how  he  made  such  a  picture  of  his  Canterbury 
pilgrims  that  not  only  the  color,  the  action,  and  the  characters 
of  the  scene,  but  also  the  very  atmosphere  of  the  jolly  crowd  has 
been  clear  and  vivid  for  more  than  four  centuries.  Macauley 
boasted  that  ho  would  write  a  history  which  would  supersede 
the  latest  novel  on  the  tables  of  the  young  ladies  of  the  day. 
How  did  he  accomplish  this?  Eead  his  History  of  En'GLAXD 
and  learn  the  secret  of  the  power  to  picture.  Another  modern 
writer  who  should  be  commended  for  her  exquisite  style  and 
brilliant  picturing,  although  we  may  not  always  agree  with  what 
she  says,  is  Marie  Corelli.  Study  George  Eliot's  Silas  Marxer, 
"where  the  interest  never  flags,  the  proper  perspective  is  always 
nuiintained,  light  and  shade  are  in  due  proportion,  and  the  lesson 
to  be  learned  is  taken,  not  as  a  bitter  dose,  but  as  one  drinks  in 
the  fresh  air  of  a  clear  May  morning."     Study  it  and  learn  how 


324  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

to  tell  a  story.  Hawthorne's  Wonder  Book  is  another  pic- 
turesque model.  Beware  of  most  present-day  writers,  for  the 
generality  of  them  are  too  reflective,  self-conscious,  suhjective; 
and  where  children  are  concerned,  too  direct  and  bare. 

Prepare  Carefully.  It  is  easier — at  least  it  is  lazier — 
to  provide  many  things  than  to  prepare  much. 

The  mind  uses  by  preference  its  most  familiar  kxowl- 
EDOE.  Each  man  borrows  his  illustrations  from  his  calling: 
the  soldier  from  the  camps;  the  sailor  from  the  ships,  etc.  So 
in  the  objects  of  study,  each  student  is  attracted  to  the  qualities 
which  relate  it  to  his  business  or  experience.  Therefore,  try  to 
keep  well  within  the  range  of  your  pupils'  plane  of  experience  in 
selecting  your  story  or  illustration  and  in  building  it  out. 

Old  Testament  Stories  and  Life  seem  somewhat 
nearer  to  children  than  New  Testament,  and  especially 
than  the  History  of  the  Acts.  It  is  the  reason  why  so  many  pre- 
fer to  give  but  a  simple  and  brief  outline  of  Christ  and  His  Life, 
and  then  to  take  up  the  Old  Testament  hio graphically,  not  his- 
torically, which  would  come  much  later,  after  historical  concepts 
have  arisen. 

"ElCH  DETAIL  DOES  NOT  NECESSARILY  MEAN  MANY  WORDS," 

says  Miss  ]\Iarianna  C.  Brown.  In  Bible  stories  it  is  usually 
expressed  in  a  few  well-chosen  and  telling  words.  In  the 
Balaam  story  the  angel  stood  in  Balaam's  way  three  different 
times.  Each  time  we  are  told  definitely  about  the  road  at  that 
particular  place.  Each  time  we  are  told  definitely  what  the  ass 
did;  for  each  time  he  did  something  different.  All  this  and 
more  is  vividly  given  in  six  ordinary  Bible  verses.  The  conver- 
sational parts  of  Bible  stories  are  equally  full  and  to  the  point. 
The  teacher  cannot  do  better  than  follow  them  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible. But  where  we  cannot  quote  exactly,  we  need  not  on  that 
account  drop  from  direct  to  indirect  discourse.  If  a  story  is  too 
vivid  the  conversation  must  be  in  the  form  of  direct  discourse. 

Choice  and  Treatment  of  Stories.  Miss  Lee  says :  "We 
must  choose  our  stories  with  the  greatest  care.  The  stress  must 
be  laid  on  goodness  and  righteousness.  It  is  true  that  goodness 
and  righteousness  must  be  seen  together  with  evil  that  the  true 
contrast  may  be  felt,  but  the  sympathy  must  be  enlisted  on  the 
side  of  good.     Cinderella,  without  the  ugly  sisters,  would  be 


TIOW  'lO  rSK   STORIES   AND   ILLISTRATIONS  325 

a  picture  tame  and  untrue  to  life.  The  heroism  of  David  stands 
out  as  a  contrast  to  the  brute  strenirtli  of  Goliath;  but  in  telling 
a  story  we  must  be  can^ful  from  first  to  last  to  enlist  sympathy 
on  the  right  side." 

Pointing  the  Moral.  "The  story  well  told  points  its  own 
moral,"  says  Miss  Lee,  "in  the  indirect  and  therefore  the  most 
effective  way.  To  express  the  moral  in  our  own  clumsy  words 
at  the  end,  as  a  rule  merely  blunts  the  impression  the  moral  has 
already  made.  We  need  to  trust  the  child  with  the  tale.  The 
soul  of  the  child  will  reach  out  to  the  spiritual  idea  in  the  story 
and  assimilate  it  without  a  word  of  moralizing  if  we  have  done 
our  work  efficiently,  with  our  soul  alive  to  the  implicit  truth  we 
are  endeavoring  to  convey." 

Verbal  Bible  Illustrations. 

Dr.  Roads  sums  up  an  exceedingly  suggestive  list.  It  will 
assist  us  much  in  thinking  up  illustrative  material. 

1.  Objects  of  A^ature.  Find  where  the  sun,  moon,  stars, 
grass,  birds,  etc.,  are  used  in  the  Bible,  and  compare  with  mod- 
ern things.  Use  the  wonders  of  American  Natural  Life  and 
Scenery  in  a  similar  way.  The  common  objects  of  to-day  in  our 
American  Wonderland  will  speak  just  as  powerfully  as  Palestine 
did  under  (lirist's  magnetic  hand. 

2.  Human  Activities  and  Occupations  around  us,  of  the 
kind  the  child  can  appreciate.  We  live  in  the  most  magnificent 
scientific  age  known.  LTse  it  to  help  Christ's  Kingdom  on.  Not 
only  great  building  operations,  tremendous  works,  great  ships, 
but  the  marvels  of  science  and  discovery  are  at  our  beck. 

3.  Anecdotes,  Stories  (Parables  from  Bible,  early  English 
Writers,  etc.).  Biographies  from  Modern  and  Present-day  II is- 
tory,  American  and  European  History,  Classical  Mythology,  Old 
Legends  (See  Gould's  Legends  of  the  Patriarchs  and 
Prophets,  Jliller's  Glimpses  Through  Life's  Windows, 
Stall's  Five-Minute  Object  Sermons;  Miss  Yonge's  Book  of 
Golden  Deeds,  etc.).  Allegories,  Similes,  and,  lastly.  Illustra- 
tions from  vivid  preachers,  for  they  published  their  sermons  to 
help  spread  the  Truth,  not  to  remain  on  shelves. 

4.  Expressive  Symbols,  Types,  etc.,  as  the  Cross,  the 
Anchor,  Crown,  XP,  JES,  Triangle,  etc. 


326  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

5.  Current  Anecdotes.  Study  the  current  newspapers  and 
magazines.  Much  that  is  suggestive  and  impressive  will  come  to 
hand.  Many  a  tale  of  local  bravery,  self-denial,  self-sacrifice  of 
comforts  or  life,  devotion  to  duty,  to  religion,  to  God,  to  Mis- 
sions, etc.,  will  be  found  in  almost  every  issue  of  a  paper  or 
magazine.  If  the  children  know  the  people  or  the  locality  of  the 
event,  it  will  win  personal  interest.  The  story  can  be  briefly 
and  vividly  recast  in  your  own  language  for  presentation  and 
elucidation  of  the  lesson.  To  preserve  this  material  until 
needed,  that  is,  until  it  naturally  suits  the  lesson  at  hand,  begin 
an  Envelope  Filing  System.  Get  cheap  manila  envelopes,  tuck 
the  flaps  in  (or  cut  them  off  entirely)  writing  the  general  topics 
you  will  need  on  the  upper,  left-hand  corner,  and  file  in  a  box 
or  drawer  (the  box  in  which  the  envelopes  were  bought  will  do 
if  you  strengthen  the  corners  with  cloth,  gummed  tape).  Into 
these  envelopes  put  all  clippings  you  can  secure  of  suggestive 
use.  Copy  mottoes,  passages,  stories,  etc.,  where  you  cannot  clip, 
and  file  the  memos  in  the  same  way.  If  the  system  grows  very 
large,  special  envelopes  can  be  made  of  heavy  manila,  and  the 
whole  filed  in  ordinary  chiffonier  drawers,  three  rows  to  a 
drawer.  This  plan  is  far  better  than  a  clipping  hooh,  for  it  is 
difficult  to  find  such  material  at  once  when  wanted,  without  an 
index,  which  means  excessive  work.  By  the  suggested  systein, 
the  envelopes  are  their  own  index,  being  arranged  in  order  as  in 
a  dictionary  or  encyclopaedia. 
Other  Illustrative  Methods. 

The  following  chapter  will  deal  with  manual  work  in  the 
Sunday  Scliool,  so  that  a  mere  reference  is  here  given  in  order 
to  preserve  the  unity  of  this  chapter. 

1.  Maps.  No  historical  Lesson  should  ever  be  taught  with- 
out use  of  maps.  Not  only  should  places,  routes,  etc.,  be  showTi 
on  maps;  but  Outline  Maps  should  be  used  for  scholars  to  draw 
on.  Also  Physical  Relief  Maps  from  pressed  paper  should  be 
constantly  used.  They  may  be  colored  by  the  class.  The  Sun- 
day School  Commission  of  New  York  has  the  largest  collection 
of  Maps  and  Pictures  in  the  world  on  exhibition,  for  the  guid- 
ance of  teachers. 

2.  Map-Drawing.  Learn  (a)  to  rapidly  sketch  maps  and 
insert  places,  using  pad  of  paper,  or,  better  still,  a  blackboard; 


now   TO   l\SK   STORIES  AND    1  IJ.USTRATIONS  327 

(b)  to  inakc  paper  pulj)  maps  (see  ^Ianual  Work,  by  Little- 
field)  ;  (c)  to  use  Sand  Tables,  where  a  separate  room  can  be 
secured  (see  Maltby's  Mw  ^loDKLLiXd). 

3.  Models  and  Objects.  Objects  of  the  Temple  are  made 
in  reduced  form  for  illustration  (X.  Y.  8.  S.  Commission). 
Other  objects  can  be  constructed  to  illustrate  lessons  by  individ- 
ual members  of  the  class.  The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Booklet  on  "Life  of 
the  Christ"  and  the  Source  Method  Lessons  of  the  Sunday 
School  Commission  of  New  York,  give  suggestions  for  illus- 
trative construction.  About  thirty  important  Bible  Models  are 
now  made  by  the  Commission. 

4.  Sketches,  illustrative  of  Pictures,  Models,  Scenes,  Sym- 
bols, etc.,  made  by  teacher  or  scholars. 

5.  Religious  Art,  especially  Eeligious  Pictures,  is  dealt  with 
very  fully  in  a  special  cliapter  in  another  section  of  this  book. 
It  is  both  a  matter  of  telling  interest  and  of  vital  importance 
to  secure  the  right  point  of  view  toward  the  cultivation  of  this 
artistic  instinct. 

Types  of  pictures  and  their  selection  are  of  supreme  import, 
for  one  of  the  greatest  mistakes  we  can  make  is  to  select  pictures 
ill-adapted  to  particular  ages.  Some  selections  are  positively 
harmful  and  injurious.  This  is  not  the  fault  of  the  pictures, 
but  their  abuse,  their  use  at  the  wrong  age  or  time.  Pictures 
that  are  concrete  are  in  themselves  better  for  children  than  those 
which  are  mystical  or  abstract.  Pictures  that  show  actions, 
even  in  war  and  killing,  are  attractive  to  small  children,  because 
of  their  action.  It  has  been  shown  that  such  pictures  do  not 
work  injury  to  the  child,  for  it  is  not  the  pain  or  the  killing  that 
he  cares  for  or  even  realizes,  but  the  vividness  of  action  and 
doing.  Pictures  of  God's  Love  and  Care,  of  Jesus  Blessing 
Children,  or  Healing  the  Sick,  of  the  Nativity  and  Childhood, 
of  Country  Life  in  Egyj)t  and  Palestine,  all  these  appeal  to  the 
younger  children. 

On  the  other  liand,  pictures  of  Pain,  Martyrdom,  Suffering, 
deeper  P^thical  and  Abstract  Teaching,  such  as  the  Last  Supper, 
Crucifixion,  (iethscnumc.  Transfiguration,  etc.,  are  better  suited 
to  adolescence  and  to  the  adult  plane  of  thought.     All  this  does 


•'i-^8  RELlGIOrs    EDL'CATION 

not  mean  that  pictures  of  eitlier  sort  should  be  exiguously  ex- 
cluded from  either  age. 

Again,  Modern  Painters:  German,  P^'rench,  English,  and 
American,  are  better  suited  for  Sunday  School  use,  as  being  more 
devotional  to  modern  modes  of  thought  than  the  so-called  Old 
Masters.  As  such  they  are  in  demand  for  children,  while  Old 
Masters  can  bo  appreciated  only  by  those  above  adolescence. 
Most  of  the  Madonnas  are  old  Italian,  and  as  such  scarcely  ap- 
peal at  all  to  young  children.  A  practical  test  of  this  may  be 
made  by  giving  children  of  varying  ages  the  choice  of  one  picture 
out  of  a  collection  of  fifty  of  these  various  sorts.  The  Sistine, 
Bodenhausen,  Ferruzzi,  Max,  and  Modern  Madonnas,  such  as 
Knaifel  (Tennessee),  Partridge,  and  Skolas,  seem  the  most 
popular  with  children.  In  the  Old  Testament,  almost  all  the 
cheaper  reproductions  are  from  Dore,  Raphael,  Angelo.  and 
Tissot.  In  the  New  Testament,  Hofmann  is  the  leader.  Then 
comes  Plockhorst,  Dore,  Bouguereau,  Bida,  Miiller,  Raphael, 
]\Iurillo,  Zimmerman,  and  Tissot.  There  are,  of  course,  manv 
liuudrcds  of  scattered  artists  with  two  or  three  favorite  and 
vivid  pictures  to  their  credit. 

[It  should  be  noted  that  The  New  York  Sunday  School 
Commission  has  published  a  book  with  all  the  pictures  carefully 
listed,  and  has  endeavored  to  aid  teachers  who  want  the  most 
useful  and  devotional  type  of  pictures  for  school  use,  by  mark- 
ing with  a  star  (*)  the  best.] 

It  is  well  for  everyone  using  pictures  in  the  Sunday  School 
to  consider  and  to  call  attention  to  the  distinction  between 
imaginative  pictures  and  real  pictures.  In  some  cases  the  one 
is  better  than  the  other  type  for  purposes  of  illustration,  and  for 
the  clearness  of  the  impression  received,  and  especially  for  the 
accuracy  of  the  impression  carried  away.  First,  in  all  Scenery, 
tlie  real  is  to  be  preferred,  and  the  objective  rather  than  the  ordi- 
nary i)liotograph.  Thus  the  stereoscope  is  of  particular  wortli, 
because  it  gives  vivid,  objective,  natural  representation  of  scenes 
in  the  Holy  Land,  with  all  the  reality  and  truthfulness  of  detail 
and  objective  proportion,  as  if  seen  l)y  the  observer  witli  the 
naked  eye.  Next  in  value  come  pictures  in  lh(>  llat.  photographs 
of  Bible  scenery. 


now     TO    rSK   STORIKS   AND    i  l.l.l  STKAIIONS  :!J!) 

Second,  in  J>ibk'  IlistoiT,  illustrating  topics,  events,  per- 
sons of  Bible  History,  always  |)oint  out  the  fact  that  none  of 
sucli  pictures  are  "real,"  that  is,  are  actual  representations  of 
the  ])ortraits  or  events.  Here  again  a  distinction  is  to  be  noted. 
Where  the  picture  is  representative  of  actual  present-day  cus- 
toms, which  arc  known  to  he  so  similar  to  those  of  the  time  we 
use  them  for,  as  to  \n>  fairly  accurate  copies  of  such  times  and 
customs,  wi'  can  count  them  as  "real."  But  all  other  pictures 
are  works  of  the  imagination,  perhaps  nearly  true  to  type  and 
fairly  good  for  general  illustration,  but  nevertheless  fanciful,  and 
not  to  be  used  dogmatically  to  give  a  child  the  impression  that 
this  is  an  absolute  ])ortrayal.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in 
the  numy  pictures  of  our  Lord,  of  the  Events  in  His  Life,  and 
of  the  many  imaginative  Old  Testament  Scenes.  In  fact 
it  is  best  to  show  a  scholar  a  great  many  pictures  of  the  same 
subject,  as  for  example,  the  IJesunvction,  the  Crucifixion,  the 
Temptation,  the  Head  of  Christ,  etc.,  just  to  make  it  realize 
that  all  of  them  are  but  the  ideal  and  fanciful  representations 
of  mankind.  As  such  they  lead  us  to  a  pictureless  ideal,  repre- 
sented by  the  highest  known  art  of  the  day  of  portrayal. 

The  coming  into  the  field  of  our  use  of  the  Tissot  pictures 
is  a  subject  of  sutlicient  congratulation  to  diminish  our  regret 
at  the  fewness  of  other  modern  pictures  within  our  disposal. 

Most  of  the  Italian  Masters'  pictures  are  formal  works  of 
art,  but  with  no  appropriate  religious  content  for  us;  as  far  re- 
moved from  our  conception  of  everyday  life  as  a  Latin  Bible 
\vould  be  for  a  text  book,  and  the  German  pictures,  a  principal 
alternative,  for  the  most  part  entirely  lack  that  artistic  fire  that 
gives  works  of  art  their  reason  for  existence. 
Graded  Stereoscopic  Work. 

In  even  liie  humblest  Sunday  School  the  stereoscope  and 
stereographs  are  to-day  becoming  an  almost  indispensable  ad- 
junct. The  subjects  involved  are  principally  scenes  from  the 
Holy  Land,  its  peoj)le,  places,  and  customs.  jSTevcrtheless, 
there  ought  to  be  grading  in  their  use,  a  sequence  or  order,  by 
which  the  pupils  are  conducted  in  a  systematic  rather  than  a 
haphazard  fashion  through  the  land  that  Jesus  trod. 

Just  as  there  are  two  kinds  of  lessons,  so  there  are  two 
methods  or  lines  of  grading  possible  in  the  use  of  stereographs. 


n.'50  HEI.KJlOrS    EDUCATION 

(1)  The  Iidrrnalional,  Joint  Diocesan,  Blakeslcc,  or  any  One- 
Subject  Lesson  System.  Here  the  stereographs  will  have  to  be 
piipplcmental,  but  nevertheless  constantly  used.  Each  Sunday 
School  Library  should  possess  an  outfit  of  stereographs  and  in- 
stniiucnts.  and  as  any  event  in  either  Old  Testament  or  New  is 
located  on  the  map,  the  scenes  bearing  on  that  locality  are 
shown.  This  requires  that  the  teacher  look  up  beforehand  the 
stereographs  that  belong  to  each  particular  lesson.  Reference 
to  the  fully-tabulated  tours  at  the  end  of  the  Picture  Handbook 
of  the  Sunday  School  Commission  of  New  York  will  quickly 
locate  the  stereographs  wanted  for  each  lesson.  Those  possess- 
ing the  Forbush  handbooks  will  find  tables  therein  showing  the 
application  of  the  stereographs  to  all  prominent  courses.  (8) 
In  Fully  Subject- Graded  Schools.  Subject-grading  is  the  com- 
ing system.  It  is  sweeping  all  other  schemes  aside  most  rapidly. 
A  subject-graded  school  lives  in  the  atmosphere  of  order,  system, 
and  grading.  Naturally  it  will  fall  into  system  in  the  use  of 
stereographs.  The  habit  grows  on  one.  Stereographs  can  be 
used  as  early  as  the  ninth  year,  not  much  before,  and  are  in  order 
even  in  adult  life.  Properly  speaking,  they  would  first  be  used 
in  the  Old  Testament  stories,  then  in  the  life  of  Christ,  the 
history  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  Messianic  Life,  the  Apostolic 
Church,  and  even  in  Church  History.  For  these  last  two  courses, 
as  well  as  for  that  on  Christian  Missions,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
communicate  with  the  Commission  Supply  Departments  or  with 
the  publishers  direct,  and  secure  the  list  of  stereographs  bearing 
on  places  outside  of  Palestine. 

It  might  be  impracticable  for  each  class  in  such  a  school  to 
purchase  all  the  stereographs  required,  though  where  this  is 
done  they  would  be  used  in  sequence  year  after  year  by  on- 
coming classes.  It  would  probably  bo  wiser  therefore  for  the 
school  to  put  in  say  one  hundred  views  covering  the  entire  field, 
cataloging  them  according  to  the  lesson  grading,  so  that  each 
class  could  find  its  needed  views,  and  have  them,  as  a  whole,  form 
a  part  of  the  Sunday  School  Library,  to  be  loaned  out  Sunday 
by  Sunday  to  different  classes  throughout  the  school,  a  set  for 
each  grade.  Thus  there  would  be  an  economy  in  stereographs, 
which  is  important  when  so  many  are  required.  With  any  of 
these  courses,  or  in  whatever  way  the  stereographs  are  used. 


HOW   TO   USE   STORIES  AND   ILLISTKATIONS  'Ml 

Historical  Maps,  comparative  embossed  Relief  Maps,  Religious 
Art  of  the  Imaginative  Type  (pictures  of  Old  Testament  Scenes 
or  of  the  Life  of  Christ),  and  above  all  the  Bible,  are  expected 
to  be  constantly  in  hand. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

[suggested  in  the  main  by  ub.  iiervey.] 

1.  "Which  kind  of  Stories  have  you   found  most  effective,  modern  or 

chissic?  Stories  read  or  told?  True  or  fictitious?  Those  based 
on  poetry  or  prose?  Stories  in  which  the  moral  is  set  forth  or 
hidden?" 

2.  "What  is  your  purpose  in  using  Stories  in  Sunday  School?" 

3.  "Mention  five  requisites  of  a  good  story-teller." 

4.  "What  means  can  you  make  use  of  to  make  the  customs,  dress,  man- 

ners, etc.,  of  Bible  people  seem  real  to  children?" 

5.  What  Illustrative  Methods,  or  Devices,  other  than  Stories,  have  you 

found  practicable?    What  are  the  best  types  of  Pictures? 

6.  W^hat  advantages  have  stereographs  over  other  illustrations? 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
MANUAL  WORK  IN  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL. 

SUGGESTED  HEADINGS. 

♦Commission  Bulletin.     Vols.  II.  and  III. 

Handbook  on  M.\nu.\l  Work.     Littlcfleld. 

•The  Sunday   School  Problem  Solved,     i^mith.     pp.  8,  36,  75. 

♦Manual  Work  for  the  Sunday  School.     Sexton. 

Newer  Methods.     Lee.     pp.  2-4,  9-10. 

Manual  Work. 

"iMiiniial  Work"'  means,  of  course,  anything  done  with  the 
hands.  In  this  hroad  usage  the  term  includes  all  written  and 
illustrative  work.  Technically,  however,  it  is  generally  confined 
to-day  to  the  following  Types  of  Work,  which  are  hrielly  sum- 
marized and  described  below.  All  are  used  at  the  same  time, 
synchronous,  not  consecutive.  For  older  scholars  of  the  Adoles- 
cent Age,  boys  and  girls  alike,  there  is  nothing  that  "takes"  so 
well  as  the  advanced  forms  of  Manual  Work,  especially  Note 
Books  and  Maps.  The  fatal  "leak  at  the  top"'  is  almost  over- 
come by  its  proper  use.     The  general  divisions  arc: 

/.    lllustraicd  Booh  Work. 

II.  Map-Mahing  in  Relief. 

III.  Map-Making  in  the  Flat. 

IV.  Model-Work. 

1.    Illustrated  Book  Work. 

It  used  to  be  thought  that,  since  small  children  were  fond 
of  pictures,  Bible  Pictures  were  only  of  use  in  the  lower  grades 
of  the  Sunday  School.  For  many  years,  their  use  has  been  con- 
fined to  a  topical  illustration  of  some  Bible  Story  or  Ethical 
Lesson.  To-day  it  is  being  realized  that  this  is  a  very  small 
field,  and  that  their  power  is  perhaps  greatest  as  a  means  of  self- 
expression  in  the  liigher  grades. 

Even  in  adult  reading  of  current  literature  it  is  noteworthy 


MAM  Al.  WolJK    IN  TUK  SI  MjAY  SCIKJDJ.  :j;J.i 

that  illustrations  and  pictures  are  the  chief  means  used  to  impart 
ideas  and  descriptions.  People  look  at  the  pictures  in  current 
literature,  and  scarcely  do  more  at  hest  than  glance  rapidly  over 
the  readiiii;-  matter.  A  picture  will  convey  in  a  comprehensive, 
vivid.  ])it-tures(iue  instant  a  grasp  and  detail  in  any  subject  that 
it  would  require  ])ages  of  print  to  e.\|)lain.  Moreover,  we  are  of 
a  com-rele,  rather  than  abstract  or  abstruse,  type  of  mind  in  this 
age.  The  eye-gate  appeals  to  our  understanding  far  better  than 
the  ear-gate,  and  the  picture  eye-gate  best  of  all.  Thinking 
of  a  historical  scene  or  object  requires  visualizing.  If  we  have 
only  a  literary  description,  the  process  of  visualizing  is  most 
complex,  though  not  so  dilKcult  perhaps  as  with  a  verbal  de- 
scription. A  picture  visualizes  at  once — gives  it  all  in  a  flash,  as 
it  were.  Pictures  are  thus  of  value  in  every  stage  of  education, 
with  the  adult  fully  as  much  as  with  the  youngest  child. 

in  all  education  of  the  modern  type,  it  is  recognized  to-day, 
that  "means  of  self-e.xpression"  are  necessary.  The  student, 
young  or  old,  must  do  in  order  to  understand.  The  object  must 
precede  the  symbol.  The  concrete  must  anticipate  the  abstract. 
The  true  education  says  that  doing  must  come  before  learning, 
that  we  understand  by  our  reconstructing,  or  at  least  represent- 
ing, what  we  are  to  learn  by  rule  and  principle  later.  Education 
thus,  secular  and  religious  alike,  is  meeting  in  self-expression 
the  wants  and  craving  and  desires  of  the  pupil. 

Some  of  such  ''■']\Ieans  of  Self-Expression"  are  Representing 
the  Subject  by  the  Use  of  Pictures,  by  Drawings,  by  Maps  (re- 
lief, putty,  clay,  Pasticine,  paper-pulp,  ink,  crayon,  water  colors, 
and  even  pyrography).  Written  Description  of  the  Subject- 
matter  in  the  form  of  Notes  or  Essays,  by  Constructing  Objects 
or  Models,  by  Reproducing  Bible  Scenes  in  simple  Plays  and 
Dramatization,  etc.  It  is  important  likewise  that  Expression  of 
Christian  Teaching  and  Altruistic  Principles  be  given  actually 
in  suggested  works  of  charity  and  kindness,  in  practically  living 
the  life  for  which  the  principles  and  teachings  stand. 

Grade  I.  Pictures  in  the  Kindergarten  and  Primary 
Schools.  Picture  Mounting  Books  (N.  Y.  Sunday  School  Com- 
mission), in  which  pictures  of  the  half-cent  or  penny  series  are 
pasted  in  with  Dennison  stickers  to  illustrate  a  topical  lesson. 

Grade  II.    Pupils  from  8  or  9  to  10  or  11.     Old  Bibles  or 


334  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

Testaments  are  clipped,  making  a  harmony  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, or  Life  of  Christ,  or  Apostolic  Church.  Clippings  and 
pictures  to  illustrate  them  are  mounted  in  Picture  Mounting 
Books,  and  a  Picture  Bible  thus  formed  by  each  child.  Children 
of  this  grade  can  often  do  this  work,  when  their  writing  is  still 
too  labored  and  crude  for  written  elaboration.  Reverence  is 
taught  by  carefully  burning  waste  portions  of  the  old  used 
Bibles.    Sometimes  the  book  covers  are  beautifully  illuminated. 

Grade  III.  Pictures  are  mounted  in  books  in  historical  se- 
quence as  before,  and  a  brief  description  written  beside  them,  or 
on  the  opposite  page,  in  addition  to  the  study  given  to  the  les- 
son in  connection  with  the  Lesson  Manual.  There  are  two 
types  of  children,  one  the  mental  type,  the  other  the  manual 
type.  This  latter  type  is  the  "bad"  boy  or  girl.  Realize  that 
badness  is  often  extreme  nervousness  and  activity,  and  will  dis- 
appear at  once  with  the  use  of  Manual  Methods,  self-expression, 
such  as  is  supplied  by  this  note-book  work.  This  is  successfully 
done  with  pupils  from  10  to  12  or  13  years  of  age. 

Grade  IV.  Pictures  and  Mounting  Books,  as  above,  with 
much  longer  essays  or  fuller  notes  or  long  theses,  forming  an 
original  biography  or  history  of  the  subject  studied.  Drawings, 
maps,  etc.,  are  added,  and  often  quite  elaborate  books  prepared, 
reaching  up  to  adult  life  and  Bible  Classes.  This  begins  at 
Adolescence,  12  years  onwards. 

Thus  we  cover  all  the  divisions  of  the  Sunday  School,  in  a 
graded  picture  note-book  scheme. 

Kindergarten  and  Primary  in  Grade  I. 

Grammar  School  in  Grades  II.  and  III. 

High  School  and  Post-Graduate  School  in  Grade  IV. 

11. — Map-Making  in  Relief. 

(a)  the  Klenini  Relief  Maps  of  Egypt,  Palestine,  and  Ro- 
man Empire  may  be  colored  with  water  or  oil  colors,  (h)  The 
Sand  Table  Map  may  be  used  in  all  grades.  Even  adults  delight 
in  it.  The  best  proportions  are  three  units  one  way  by  four  the 
other.  White  Rockaway  or  River  Bottom  Sand  or  ground  Glass 
Quartz  are  the  best  materials,  (c)  Paper  Pulp  (white  or  olive 
green),  clay,  or  even  putty,  can  he  molded.  For  the  use  of  the 
Pulp,  see  the  Commission  Bulletin,  Vols.  II.  and  III.  (25  cents 


-MAM  A  I.  WOKK   IN   Till-:  Sl'NDAV  SCHOOL  :i:!.'> 

a  volume)  or  Mr.  LiUlcficld's  Manual  Work.  Clay  and  Putty 
do  not  dry  well;  but  are  used  on  glass  or  the  board  may  be 
]>aintod.  Pulp  is  the  best,  though  flour  and  salt  are  used. 
The  Maps  are  made  in  the  Map-Boards,  noted  below,  and  when 
dry  are  pried  oflF  with  a  broad  knife,  and  pasted  on  cardboard. 
They  may  be  colored  as  desired  with  oil  colors,  water  colors 
(Diamond  Easter  Egg  Dyes  or  Japanese  Water  Colors  on  cards). 
.\nother  excellent  material  is  Plasticine,  a  kindergarten  clay  that 
comes  in  colors.  The  maps  are  made  during  two  or  three  Sunday 
School  Sessions,  in  a  separate  room,  under  a  special  teacher, 
who  takes  the  regular  teacher  and  the  pupils  apart  for  this  work, 
or  they  may  be  done  outside  of  school  hours,  some  afternoon  or 
evening,  as  arranged.  Much  time  is  saved,  as  the  Bil)le  Events 
and  History  are  clinched  readily  by  these  maps,  and  Bible 
Geography  becomes  a  matter  of  certain  visualizing,  not  of  dead 
rote  memory,  to  say  nothing  of  vital  interest.  A  good  "key" 
for  the  dimensions  and  relations  of  Palestine  is  given  in  Manual 
Work. 

Tlic  only  Maps  needed  in  the  whole  course  are :  1.  In  Old 
Testament  History,  Palestine,  some  colored  for  Pre-Exodus 
and  some  for  the  Conquest,  Solomon's  Kingdom,  and  Subse- 
quent Fortunes  of  Israel  and  Judah;  Egypt  and  Sinai,  for  the 
Exodus;  Mesopotamia,  for  the  Exiles.  2.  In  the  Life  of 
Christ,  Palestine,  with  New  Testament  Divisions,  and  Galilee. 
showing  Esdraelon  for  the  Galilean  JMinistry,  which  requires 
more  space  to  outline  it.  3.  In  the  Early  Christian 
Church,  Roman  Empire  only,  for  St.  Paul's  Journeys.  Six 
maps  in  all  are  essential. 

IIL — Map-Making   in  the   Flat. 

The  Historical  Maps  of  the  Littlefield.  Bailey.  Harrison, 
McKinlcy,  and  Hodge  Series  cover  every  possible  style,  price, 
size,  and  subject  desired.  They  range  from  45  cents  a  hundred 
to  10  cents  apiece.  In  general  we  would  recommend  the  follow- 
ing use,  running  parallel  with  the  Eolief  Maps.  Use  them  in 
profusion,  letting  every  pupil  have  them,  water  or  oil  colors. 

(a)  For  Old  Testament  History,  get  the  full  set  of 
Littlefield  Maps  for  coloring  with  crayons.  There  are  fifteen  in 
the  set  in  all.    The  several  Bailey  Maps,  especially  the  Key  Maps. 


.S.36  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

arc  valuable  for  rapid  line  making  and  for  Eeviews  and  "Tests." 
(b)  Foii  THE  LiFK  OF  Christ,  use  the  Littlefield,  for  it  gives 
Palestine  in  larger  form,  use  Bailey  Esdraelon  for  Galilean  Min- 
istry, use  Bailey  Key  Map  for  places,  (c)  For  the  Apostolic 
Church,  use  Littlefield  Map  for  Early  Apostolic  Journeys,  use 
Bailey  Roman  World  and  Key  Map  of  Homan  World  for  St. 
Paul's  Journeys.  These  sets  of  maps  sell  by  the  tens  of  thou- 
sands and  are  the  very  best  avenues  of  interest  and  "point  of 
contact"  yet  developed  in  Bible  Study.  Note  carefully  that  NO 
MAP  WORK  should  be  begun  before  the  age  of  TEN  or 
ELEVEN. 

IV.— Modelic  Work. 

.Moflels  are  essential  to  a  clear  understanding  to-day.  They 
have  long  been  seen  in  the  Day  School.  They  are  rapidly  com- 
ing into  the  Sunday  School.  Hundreds  of  dollars  are  being 
spent  in  their  manufacture.  Every  good  Sunday  School  is  put- 
ting in  a  Museum.  The  list  is  constantly  being  enlarged.  Note 
carefully  that  some  models  can  be  used  at  all  ages,  some  only 
after  "Historic  Perception"  has  developed.  Those  usable  before 
ten  are  the  Houses,  Tent,  Sheepfold,  Scroll,  Well,  Water  Jar, 
Lamp,  Tomb,  and  Water  Bottle.  All  these  and  the  others  can 
be  used  for  all  ages  above  ten.  Some  of  them  combine  splendidly 
with  the  Sand  Table.  Under  Models,  would  also  come  the  Flow- 
ers of  Palestine  and  Stereoscopic  Pictures,  commonly  called 
Stereographs,  which  portray  real  scenes  in  the  three  dimensions. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  are  the  Chief  Divisions  of  Manual  Work? 

2.  What  four  grades  of  Book  Work  are  used?    Explain  each. 

3.  What  can  you  say  about  Relief  Maps — the  Materials,  Subjects,  and 

Mode  of  Making? 

4.  What  special  use  is  Map  Work  in  the  Flat? 

5.  \\'hat  advantages  have  IVTodels? 


CHAPTER  XX. 

MEMORY   AND    ITS   TRAINING, 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 
Memory: 

•Ti:a(  iiicii  Tkaining.     Roads,     pp.  68-71. 

*T,vLKs  TO  Teachp:rs.     James,     pp.   116-145. 

The  Art  of  Teaching.     Fitch,     pp.  144-158. 

I'p  Through  Childhood.     HubhcU.     pp.  182-190. 

•How  TO  Strengthen  the  Memory.     Holbrook. 

I'mxDATioN.s  OF  Educ.vtion.     Moorc.     pp.  67-80. 

I'sYciioLOGY  AND  PSYCHIC  CULTURE.    Eallock.     Chapter  VI. 

.\  Man's  Valie  to  Society.     Hillis.     pp.  133-140. 

Tedagogical  Bible  School,     pp.  114-116. 

Memoriter  Work: 

•The  Art  of  Teaching.     Fitch,     pp.  14-175. 
I'edacogicai.   I'.ikle   Schooi,.     pp.  269-282. 

Memory-Training   in  the  Scholars. 

There  would  be  little  use  in  teaching,  unless  it  left  a  resi- 
duum, at  least,  of  stored-up  knowledge,  related,  interwoven 
knowledge,  as  an  impress  upon  life  and  character.  We  have 
already  considered  the  general  facts  about  memory. 

Here  we  wish  to  think  of  only  those  facts  of  special  inter- 
est in  our  practical  training  of  memory. 

What  Kinds  of  Memory  Are  Wanted? 

I?  it  a  memory  of  Words,  A'erbal  Memory  (as  that  culti- 
vated in  Memoriter  Work),  or  of  Things  and  Facts  (as  Historj', 
etc.)  ?  Ts  it  primarily  Concrete  Memory,  accurate  reproduc- 
tions of  visual  images,  pictures,  sounds;  or  an  Abstract  Memory, 
such  as  holds  the  gist  and  general  meaning  of  what  has  been 
taught,  and  can  reason  better  about  the  facts  learned  than  most 
visualizing  memories?  Have  you  ever  noticed  that  those  chil- 
dren who  learn  to  recite  the  Catechism  most  accurately,  are  least 
able  to  explain  it  ?  and  that  the  other  class,  who  stumble  over  it, 
letting  slip  snuill  words,  can  cover  the  sense  and  meaning  of  the 


'VM  IlEI.KaOL'S    EDUCATION 

answers  with  far  more  understanding  than  do  the  former 
group?  We  "do  not  have  memory,""  says  James,  "but  memo- 
ries," and  you  must  bear  in  mind  each  time  the  kind  you  arc 
seeking  to  cultivate. 

Types  of  Memory. 

llaslett  says :  "DifTerent  types  of  memory  are  found  to  exist. 
Tlie  visual  type  remembers  things  in  terms  of  visual  images 
while  the  tactual  features  largely  disappear.  The  auditory  type 
sees  things  in  terms  of  hearing  while  the  visual  and  tactual 
may  fade  away.  The  tactual  type  remembers  in  terms  of  touch. 
The  mixed  type  of  memory  is  probably  the  most  common  of  all, 
and  the  most  valuable.  Usually  some  one  of  the  three  types 
prevails  in  each  mind  and  the  aim  in  teaching  is  so  to  present 
tlie  material  as  to  appeal  to  the  dominant  type." 

Thorndike  thinks  "Individual  intellects  can  be  divided 
roughly  into  two  classes:  those  able  to  work  with  ideas  and 
those  able  to  work  with  things.  Some  children  manage  numbers, 
words,  parts  of  speech,  chemical  symbols  and  the  like,  but  fail 
relatively  in  measuring  boards,  catching  fish,  cooking  meals  or 
making  toys.  They  are  the  idea  thinkers.  Others  make  little 
headway  with  their  arithmetic,  grammar  or  text-book  in  chemis- 
try, but  succeed  in  the  shop,  woodwork,  and  laboratory.  They  are 
the  thing  thinkers.  There  is,  however,  no  opposition  between 
these  two  types;  indeed,  a  high  degree  of  skill  with  ideas  means 
a  higher  than  average  skill  with  things.  Still  for  practical 
purposes  we  can  classify  children  by  their  special  strength  into 
these  two  groups." 

Chief  Educational  Laws  of  Memory. 

Dr.  Eoads  puts  them  in  popular  language.  We  shall  give 
his  summary,  and  then  treat  them  in  detail,  scientifically. 

1.  Absolute  Faith  in  Memory.  Do  not  depreciate  it,  as  so 
many  do,  simply  saying  that  they  have  a  poor  memory,  and  that 
there  is  no  use  in  trying  to  learn.  We  do  what  we  believe  we 
can  do.  All  have  some  memory.  Use  what  you  have.  Expect 
memory  to  recall.  Demand  it.  Train  it.  Have  patience  with 
its  failures  and  weaknesses.  A  child  cannot  carry  a  strong 
man's  load. 

2.  A  First  Powerful  Impression  helps  to  make  a  fact  or 


MEMORY  AND    ITS   TRAINING  339 

ihuiKjhl  clintj  lo  lite  inemory.  (jivc  a  startling  effect  at  first, 
vivid  impressions,  stroni,'  cinpliasis,  clear  outlines  of  the  skeleton. 
Do  not  surround  it  by  too  many  and  misleading  and  diverting 
side-lights.  Keep  to  the  subject,  and  do  not  wander  off  in 
digressions  and  discursions.  Strong  contrasts  of  one  fact  set 
against  either  an  entirely  opposite  one,  or  a  similar  one,  in 
which  the  points  of  dissimilarity  are  emphasized,  will  aid  in 
this  impression. 

According  to  Thorndike :  "As  a  rule  it  is  more  economical 
to  put  things  together  energetically  than  to  put  them  together 
often;  close  attention  is  better  than  repetition.  The  active  re- 
call of  a  fact  from  within  is,  as  a  rule,  better  than  its  impression 
from  without;  for  recall  is  a  helpful  way  to  be  sure  of  close 
attention  and  also  forms  the  connection  in  the  way  in  which  it 
will  later  be  required  to  act.  Furthermore,  if  children  are 
taught  to  memorize  by  recall,  they  are  saved  from  wasting  time 
in  reading  over  and  over  or  studying  at  length  facts  which  they 
have  already  committed  to  memory.  In  memorizing  by  recall 
one  not  only  knows  a  fact ;  he  also  knows  when  he  knows  it. 

"It  is  fashionable  nowadays  to  decry  memory  as  a  sort  of 
cheap  slavery  of  the  intellect,  a  'skeleton  in  the  closet'  of  teach- 
ing, not  fit  to  be  mentioned  in  the  polite  society  of  apperception, 
interest,  reasoning,  and  the  rest.  In  the  laudable  effort  to  cure 
school  work  of  the  error  of  trusting  everything  to  verbal  memory, 
writers  on  teaching  have  made  the  mistake  of  the  surgeon  who 
cured  a  sprained  ankle  by  cutting  off  the  leg. 

"Indeed  the  trouble  was  not  wdth  memory,  but  with  what 
was  remembered,  words  only.  We  surely  must  not  cut  a  man's 
legs  off,  because  he  walks  into  danger  on  them !  If  a  fact  is 
understood,  the  better  it  is  remembered,  the  better  off  we  are. 
It  does  little  good  to  explain  a  process  so  skilfully  as  to  make  it 
perfectly  understood,  if  the  explanation  has  to  be  repeated  again 
the  next  week  or  day.  Moreover  there  is  and  probably  always 
will  be  in  school  work  a  great  bulk  of  fact  which  pupils  can 
understand  without  any  difficulty,  but  which  can  be  made  their 
permanent  possession  only  by  definite  effort. 

"The  principle  that  knowledge  should  be  not  a  multitude  of 
isolated  connections,  but  well  ordered  groups  of  connections, 
related  to  each  other  in  useful  ways — should  not  be  a  hodge- 


;}40  JIKLIGTOUS    EDUCATION 

podge  of  inforniMlion,  but  a  well-ordered  system  whose  inner 
relationships  correspond  to  those  of  the  real  world — is  called  the 
principle  of  correlation.  It  implies  that  lesson  and  lesson  be 
brought  into  relations  one  with  another  in  a  larger  unit,  and 
that  one  subject  of  study  be  taught  with  reference  to  the  other 
subjects  whenever  the  facts  they  represent  have  important  bear- 
ings the  one  upon  the  other  in  the  real  world.  The  chief  dan- 
gers to  be  avoided  in  teaching  relationships  are:  (1)  such  as 
infatuation  with  the  doctrine  of  correlation  as  leads  one  to 
waste  time  in  teaching  relationships  so  obvious  that  a  pupil  is 
sure  to  make  them  for  himself  or  so  trivial  that  they  are  not 
worth  the  making,  and  (2)  such  ignorance  or  carelessness  as 
leads  one  to  teach  relationships  that  are  false  or  artificial.  It  is 
as  bad  or  even  worse  to  teach  a  useless  relationship  as  a  iiseless 
fact,  a  false  relationship  as  a  false  fact." 

3.  Personal  Interest  in  the  learner.  We  remember  what 
we  have  interest  in.  Note  the  scores  carried  in  the  brain  of  the 
small  base-ballist ;  the  names  and  records  stored  by  the  race- 
goer; the  formulae  constantly  used  by  the  chemist,  and  many 
similar  instances.  Develop  curiosity  and  so  interest  in  the 
truth ;  stir  up  motives  of  personal  regard  for  the  acquisition  of 
that  knowledge.  The  motives  that  help  to  hold  Attention  are 
those  of  most  avail  in  Memory  as  well.  Roads  puts  it:  "The 
law  of  powerful  first  impression  is  like  making  the  food  very 
attractive  and  appetizing:  the  law  of  intensified  interest  is  like 
creating  a  voracious  appetite.  The  two  working  together  will 
produce  a  perfect  memory  result." 

4.  Manifold  Associations.  All  educators  lay  particular 
stress  on  this,  for  it  is  the  scientific  basis  of  Memory.  We  not 
only  comprehend  and  understand  and  "assimilate"  new  truth 
by  connecting  by  "Apperceptivity"  with  the  old  and  familiar 
truth  ;  but  we  remember  and  recall  it  in  the  same  way.  Thus 
associating  the  fact  that  Palestine  is  about  the  same  shape  as 
New  Hampshire  helps  us  to  remember  it,  for  we  all  recall  New 
Hampshire's  contour. 

Most  memory  devices  are  false,  cumbersome,  extraneous, 
and  complicated  ;  but  natural  association  is  demanded  for  all 
good  memory.  The  so-called  mnemonic  systems  are  wholly  use- 
less and  artificial,  and  ultimately  involve  more  waste  of  energy, 


-ME.MOUV   AS\)   ITS  TKAIMNC;  341 

more  toil  and  strain  and  work,  than  straight  out-and-out  learn- 
ing. They  recommend  irrational  methods  of  thinking,  and  are 
only  of  use  for  detaciied  facts,  not  otherwise  easily  associated. 
.James  illustrates  by  the  use  of  the  mnemonic  "Vihgyor"  to  recall 
the  colors  of  the  spectrum. 

lie  notes  the  consecjui'nt  injury  of  "cramming,"  which  seeks 
to  stamp  in  things  temporarily  by  intense  application,  with  few, 
if  any,  associations  formed,  just  to  carry  one  over  an  ordeal.  It 
does  not  lead  to  the  results  desired  by  the  permanent,  retentive 
memory.  Jf  it  did,  it  could  be  recommended  as  a  labor-saving 
plan.  The  same  facts  gone  over  day  by  day,  slowly,  repeatedly 
thought  about,  and  thus  associated  with  many  other  facts,  would 
have  had  woven  around  them  a  mass  of  friendly  associations, 
any  one  of  which  would  have  fixed  it  firmly  in  the  mind. 

5.  Repetition.  Mere  rote  repetition  will  not  necessarily 
aid  in  fixing  facts  in  memory.  It  should  be  slightly  varied  to 
secure  and  retain  high  interest,  and  then  each  repetition  will  be 
just  as  helpful  as  the  first  impression.  Again  r('{)etitions,  con- 
ducted not  all  at  once,  but  at  separated  intervals,  are  of  more 
benefit  than  continuous  work. 

G.  Thoroughness  and  System.  The  habit  of  desultory 
novel-reading,  reading  to  forget,  is  one  of  the  injurious  and 
pernicious  habits  of  the  present  day.  It  ruins  good  memory. 
While  it  is  true  that  "the  secret  of  a  good  memory  lies  much  in 
what  we  learn  is  best  to  forget,"  because  we  cannot  carry  every- 
thing in  mind,  and  hence  should  discriminate;  yet  the  constant 
reading  of  what  we  determinedly  do  not  intend  to  remember  is 
destructive  of  good  memories.  The  Memoriter  Work  assigned 
in  various  Lesson  Systems,  is  not  to  be  neglected,  without  harm. 
]\ruch  more  should  be  learned  than  is  learned  to-day,  and  teach- 
ers need  not  be  afraid  of  imposing  too  hard  a  task  on  the  pupils. 

How  to   Memorize. 

Suppose  you  or  your  scholars  have  (1)  a  piece  of  Scripture 
to  learn  by  heart,  or  (2)  General  Facts  of  a  Lesson  of  either 
(a)  an  Historical  Character,  or  (b)  a  Doctrinal  and  therefore 
abstract  character  to  store  up  in  mind.  These  are  two  distinct 
cases.  The  former  calls  for  Verbal  Memory ;  the  latter  demands 
Rational   Memory.     Verbal   Memory.     The   mind  should   be 


342  REIJGIOUS    EDUCATION 

bright  and  fresh,  not  tired,  and  wearied.  Retention  is  a  neces- 
sary part  of  memory,  and  the  brain  cells  are  not  in  fit  condition 
to  retain  when  wearied.  As  a  rule,  according  to  Fitch,  the  mind 
is  in  its  highest  cerebral  activity  within  one  or  two  hours  after 
the  morning  meal.  This  may  vary,  though,  with  different  persons. 
Selecting  the  right  time,  suited  to  your  condition  and  nature, 
sit  down  and  read  over  once,  twice,  three  times  or  more  the 
whole  passage  to  be  learned.  Then  begin,  little,  by  little,  and 
analyze  and  think  about  each  line;  learning  and  repeating  it, 
clause  by  clause  (not  just  five  words  more,  etc.),  going  back 
and  saying  the  previously  committed  clauses,  until  all  is  learned. 
Do  not  do  this  by  rote  and  mechanically,  but  think  about  it, 
recall  when  at  loss,  not  by  looking  at  the  book  immediately,  but 
by  analyzing  and  thinking.  Repeat  the  selection  later  on  in  the 
day.  Recall  it  early  the  next  day,  without  looking  at  the  book, 
and  then  verify  the  recall,  if  necessary.  If  you  are  of  a  visual 
type,  you  may  have  a  reproduction  in  your  mind  of  the  very 
page;  but  this  is  not  at  all  necessary  or  even  the  best  kind  of 
memory.  The  secret  of  all  memory-training  (never  forget  it) 
is  Thinking,  Thinking,  THINKING. 

Reasoning. 

"The  processes  of  judging  facts,  reasoning,  following  an 
argument  and  reaching  conclusions  are  the  same  processes  of 
learning;  the  difference  is  that  there  is  active  selection  within 
the  present  thought  of  some  part  or  aspect  which  consequently 
determines  the  next  thought,"  says  Thorndike,  "and  selection 
again  amongst  the  sequent  thoughts,  retaining  one  and  discard- 
ing others.  The  laws  of  rational  thought  are  the  general  laws 
of  association  and  dissociation,  but  with  predominance  of  the 
law  of  partial  activity.  The  principles  of  teaching  in  the  case 
of  responses  of  comprehension,  inference,  invention  and  the  like 
are  the  principles  derived  from  the  fact  that  (1)  the  total  set  or 
context  or  system  of  thought  and  (2)  any  single  feature  of  a 
thought,  as  well  as  the  particular  thing  thought  of,  may  decide 
the  future  course  of  thinking. 

"The  principles  of  Reasoning  thus  derived  are:  (1)  arouse 
in  the  pupil's  mind  the  system  of  ideas  and  connections  relevant 
to  the  work  in  hand.     (2)  Lead  him  to  examine  each  fact  he 


MK.MOKV   AND    ITS    IKAIXIXG  :m:5 

thinks  of  in  tlio  light  of  the  aim  of  that  work  and  to  focus 
attention  on  the  element  of  the  fact  which  is  essential  to  his  aim. 
(3)  Insist  that  he  test  whether  or  not  it  is  the  essential  hy 
making  sure  that  it  leads  on  to  the  goal  aimed  at  by  the  logical 
step  of  verification,  by  comparing  the  conclusions  to  which  it 
leads  with  known  facts. 

"Difficulties  in  Teaching  Reasoning. — There  is  no  royal  road 
to  teaching  subjects  requiring  reasoning.  The  student  must 
have  the  facts  to  reason  with  and  have  them  arranged  in  sys- 
tems in  the  way  in  which  they  will  be  needed.  He  must  replace 
the  gross  total  fact  which  suggests  nothing  or  a  thousand  ir- 
relevant things  by  that  one  of  its  elements  or  features  or  aspects 
that  does  suggest  some  consequence  of  use  for  the  solution  of  the 
problem  in  hand.  He  must  learn  to  criticise  his  ideas  so  as  to 
know  whicli  do  show  signs  of  usefulness  for  his  purpose,  when 
to  give  a  line  of  thought  up  as  hopeless,  and  what  he  has  proved 
when  he  has  finished.  He  must  make  sure  by  testing  his  con- 
clusion by  actual  experience  or  by  comparison  with  facts  abso- 
lutely certain." 

The  Use  of  Types. — Many  of  the  advantages  of  inductive 
teaching  can  be  secured  through  a  compromise  between  an  out- 
and-out  induction  and  a  mere  statement  of  conclusions — namely, 
through  the  type  method.  The  thorough  study  of  one  typical 
case  of  a  class  or  law  gives  a  basis  of  real  experience  which 
serves  to  interpret,  though  not  to  prove,  the  general  statement. 
Knowledge  about  such  a  type  also  serves  as  a  centre  of  attraction 
for  later  knowledge  of  things  like  it. 

Forgetting. 

We  do  not  forget,  however,  very  rapidly  much  that  we  have 
learned.  Professor  Ebbinghaus  proved  conclusively  that  nothing 
is  ever  wholly  forgotten.  The  process  of  forgetting  is  vastly 
more  rapid  at  first  than  later  on.  We  never  descend  quite  so 
low  in  any  forgotten  piece  as  to  reach  the  zero-line. 

Things  that  we  are  totally  unable  to  recall  have  neverthe- 
less left  their  impress.  We  are  different  beings  for  having  once 
learned  them.  Our  brain-paths  have  been  impressed  and  altered. 
Our  actions  may  differ,  our  conclusions  be  different  than  would 
have  been  the  case  had  we  never  experienced  such  impressions. 


.•514  j;i:i.i(;i()is  kducatiox 

It  is  the  old  point  of  ''no  impression  without  expression."  Some- 
how we  will  always  he  different  for  the  act  of  memorizing. 

Never  fail  to  divide  the  Memorizing  Process  into  its  parts : 
Attention,  Retention,  and  l^ecall  or  Reproduction.  It  is  the 
last  part  that  most  often  fails.  The  child  who  says,  "I  know; 
but  I  cannot  remember  it,"  is  not  the  same  kind  of  a  child  as 
the  one  who  never  knew.  It  may  even  be  that  much  later  on, 
by  quiet,  "unconscious  cerebration,"  as  it  has  been  termed,  the 
seemingly  forgotten  thought  may  flash  out  suddenly  upon  his 
mental  vision.  The  brain-paths  were  for  the  time  blocked,  and 
the  associations  were  not  formed. 

In  Professional  Life,  stored  away,  semi-forgotten  facts  are 
particularly  numerous.  The  Lawyer,  the  Doctor,  the  Scientist, 
can  tell  you  but  a  meagre  number  of  his  laws,  facts,  formulae, 
rulings,  prescriptions,  etc.  But  through  his  well-ordered  sys- 
tems, indices,  files,  etc.,  he  can  go  at  once  to  the  exact  spot 
where  the  knowledge  is  in  print.  Others,  never  having  had  that 
knowledge,  not  only  could  not  trace  it  up;  but,  if  under  their 
eyes  could  not  comprehend  it,  so  new,  so  strangely  unconnected 
would  it  prove. 

Haslett  says :  "An  increase  of  memory  power  occurs  about 
the  seventh  or  the  eighth  year.  Full  development  of  memory 
is  not  attained  until  the  next  stage.  In  the  former  part  of  this 
stage  memory  is  concrete  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  stage  it  is 
verbal  and  mechanical.  The  memory  material  for  the  years 
seven  to  about  nine  should  be  in  a  form  that  has  some  meaning 
for  the  child,  while  after  this  time  abstract  terms  may  be  memo- 
rized safely.  According  to  one  study,  seventeen  per  cent,  of  a 
story  was  remembered  by  boys  in  the  third  grade,  while  forty- 
two  per  cent,  of  it  was  remembered  by  boys  in  the  ninth  grade. 
Eighteen  per  cent,  of  the  story  was  remembered  by  girls  in  the 
third  grade,  and  forty-three  per  cent,  by  girls  in  the  seventh 
grade.  The  ability  to  remember  a  story  was  found  to  increase 
with  age  until  the  climax  was  reached  at  fourteen  or  fifteen 
years.  Dr.  Colgrove  concludes  that  boys  have  a  better  memory 
for  descriptions  and  logical  processes,  while  girls  have  a  better 
memory  for  novel  occurrences  and  single  impressions.  Persons 
are  more  easily  remembered  by  both  girls  and  boys.  Memory 
for  action  is  strong  at  nine  and  ten  and  increasing." 


MKMnilV   AXn    ITS  TRATXIXr;  .'{45 

Memoriter  Work. 

Here  is  ulial  l'"ilcli  lliiiiks  of  "Learning  by  heart."'  It  is 
to  bo  used : 

1 .  For  Formulae  and  Rules,  as  in  Arithmetic  and  all  exact 
Seienee.><.  Also  Definitions,  Axioms,  etc. — that  is,  such  state- 
ments as  have  been  reduced  most  carefully  to  the  simplest  form 
of  expression,  and  arc  to  be  applied  with  perfect  accuracy. 

2.  Special  things  that  deserve  to  be  remembered  as  of  par- 
ticular value  in  themselves.  Such  should  be  Mottoes,  Texts, 
Proverbs,  Verses  of  Poetry,  Selections  from  great  Writers,  em- 
bodying high  thoughts  or  fine  language,  Formularies  of  the 
Faith,  Wise  ]\Iaxims  and  Sayings — all  such  are  worth  storing 
up  most  precisely,  and  recalling  most  frequently.  The  possessor 
of  such  a  storehouse  has  an  invaluable  treasury  of  wealth  to 
draw  on  on  all  occasions.  The  words  themselves  have  a  ])ur- 
poso  and  beauty  all  their  own.  This  memorizing,  however,  will 
be  worse  than  bad,  unless  we  think  and  reflect  on  what  we  learn. 

Xone  of  this  applies  to  useless  learning.  To  use  memory 
for  other  than  the  storing  up  of  beneficial  knowledge  is  wrong 
and  illegitimate.  The  several  pages  of  hints  that  Professor 
Fitch  gives  as  to  just  what  would  be  of  value  to  learn  by  heart 
should  be  carefully  conned  by  all  teachers.  Some  memory  work 
should  be  performed  by  everyone. 

According  to  James:  "The  excess  of  old-fashioned  verbal 
memorizing,  and  the  immense  advantages  of  object-teaching  in 
the  earlier  stages  of  culture,  have  perhaps  led  those  who  philoso- 
phize about  teaching  to  an  unduly  strong  reaction ;  and  learning 
things  by  heart  is  now  probably  too  much  despised.  For,  when 
all  is  said  and  done,  the  fact  remains  that  verbal  material  is,  on 
the  whole,  the  handiest  and  most  useful  material  in  which  think- 
ing can  be  carried  on.  ...  1  should  say,  therefore,  that 
constant  exercise  in  verbal  memorizing  must  still  be  an  indis- 
pensable feature  in  all  sound  education.  Xothing  is  more  de- 
plorable than  that  inarticulate  and  helplesss  sort  of  mind  that 
is  reminded  by  everything  of  some  quotation,  case,  or  anecdote, 
which  it  cannot  now  exactly  recollect.  Nothing  on  the  other 
hand,  is  more  convenient  to  its  possessor  or  more  delightful  to 
his  comrades,  than  a  mind  able,  in  telling  a  story,  to  give  the 


346  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

exact  words  of  the  dialogue  or  to  furnish  a  quotation  accurate 
and  complete." 

Drawbridge  says:  "Suppose  that  it  could  be  proved  that  a 
certain  teaclier — instead  of  showing  the  children  how  to  work 
out  the  simple  addition  sums  which  are  set  in  a  certain  ancestral 
Arithmetic  book — had  torn  out  the  answers  at  the  end  of  the 
venerable  book,  and  had  compelled  the  pupil  to  swallow  in  the 
shape  of  pills,  page  after  page  of  the  answers :  what  then?  Would 
that  prove  that  the  said  arithmetic  book  was  (in  itself)  useless? 
Would  it  not  rather  demonstrate  that  the  teacher  had  imparted 
the  information  in  the  wrong  way?" 

"The  fact  that  the  thing  has  been  abused,  does  not  in  itself 
prove  that  it  ought  not  to  be  used.  Or  if  a  teacher  taught  the 
children  the  answers  (in  the  book)  off  by  heart,  before  they  were 
set  to  work  out  the  sums,  he  would  be  guilty  of  an  almost  equal 
absurdity,  but  the  fault  would  be  his,  not  the  book's.  To  begin 
with  the  answers,  instead  of  with  the  sums,  is  to  commence  at 
the  wrong  end.  Nature — God — teaches  in  the  reverse  order. 
The  result  of  supplying  the  answers  prematurely  is  to  defeat  the 
object  of  the  arithmetic  lesson,'  and  to  misuse  the  book.  But 
the  answers  have  their  use.  They  must  be  known  by  the  teacher. 
It  is  the  teacher,  not  the  book,  which  deserves  the  blame  if  the 
answers  are  abused." 

Reasons  for  Written  Answer  Work. 

Written  Answer  Work  should  always  be  demanded  for  the 
following  reasons: 

1.  We  know  thus  that  the  child  has  studied  the  lesson  and 
done  the  work  demanded. 

2.  He  must  delve  harder  and  thereby  form  more  associa- 
tions in  order  to  formulate  the  statement  which  is  to  be  set  down 
as  an  answer.  It  must  be  in  his  own  language  and  not  a  copied 
text. 

3.  He  must  dwell  on  it  still  longer  in  order  to  make  it 
short  enough  to  be  inserted  in  the  purposely  small  space  left  in 
which  to  write  the  answer. 

4.  The  contrast  between  the  printed  question  and  the  writ- 
ten answers  drives  the  answer  home  visually,  for  it  stands  out 
just  as  italics  would  and  is  not  homogeneous  with  the  questions. 


MlvMOKY    AND    ITS  TRAINING  347 

5.  The  child  actually  gains  by  what  we  term  Muscle  Mem- 
ory, the  uiochanical  action  of  having  written  it  and  gone  through 
the  muscular  motions.  There  are  certain  types  of  Aphasia  or 
Amnesia,  that  is  of  word-forgetting,  under  which  the  patient  can 
recall  a  word  by  writing  it.  It  does  not  matter  whether  he  writes 
on  paper  or  in  tlie  air.     It  is  the  muscle  motion  that  recalls  it. 

Hewitt  says :  "If  selections  are  not  written  down,  they  are 
only  half  memorized  and  of  course  will  pass  from  the  memory 
very  easily.  Teachers  who  do  not  do  this  lose  three-fourths  of 
the  value  of  memoriter  work."  Applied  to  the  Catechism,  it 
would  mean  that  the  best  way  of  reciting  it  would  be  to  give 
every  scholar  a  sheet  of  paper  and  a  pencil  and  have  each  one 
write  down  the  Catechism  portion  learned  for  the  day.  Not 
only  is  time  saved  thus,  but  the  memory  is  strengthened. 

Question-and-Answer  Books. 

The  principle  of  such  books  is  wrong,  fatally  and  "tee- 
totally  wrong."  Fitch  has  not  a  good  word  to  say  for  them. 
Neither  have  McMurr}^  nor  James,  nor  Hall.  Why?  Look  at 
the  facts  in  the  light  of  what  we  have  Just  studied.  The  ques- 
tions are  not  to  be  learned  usually,  only  the  answers.  The  An- 
swers are  isolated,  disconnected,  incomplete,  garbled  statements, 
often  about  one-fifth  of  a  statement,  of  which  the  balance  lies  in 
the  Question  itself.  In  some  of  these  books,  the  difficulty  is 
partially  met,  by  repeating  the  Question  in  the  Answer,  making 
it  a  complete  statement.  This  is  better  perhaps,  but  still  in- 
correct. It  assumes  that  there  is  to  be  no  real  contact  between 
scholar  and  teacher,  that  all  questions  asked  are  to  take  a  par- 
ticular form,  and  admit  of  but  one  possible  answer.  There  is 
no  room  for  freedom,  for  intelligence  on  the  part  of  either 
teacher  or  scholar.  It  is  all  a  formal  piece  of  almost  mechani- 
cal work,  with  no  real  room  for  Self-activity,  for  proper  Ques- 
tioning, for  appeal  to  the  pedagogical  Heuristic  or  Source 
Method,  etc. 

Lee  says:  "To  commit  to  memory  any  form  of  words,  as, 
for  instance,  the  words  of  the  Church  Catechism,  is  for  children 
a  comparatively  easy  matter;  to  lead  the  children  to  grasp  the 
meaning  of  the  words,  to  make  the  ideas  contained  in  them  a 
living  reality,  is  our  aim  in  Sunday  School,  and  it  is  by  no  means 


.'548  RELfUTOrS    EDUCATION 

easy  of  accoiiiplishment.  In  tlie  old  days  wo  tauglit  tlie  words 
first  and  explained  them  afterwards;  just  as  in  geography  les- 
sons we  commenced  with  definitions  and  later  dealt  with  con- 
crete instances.  This  is  both  to  make  memorizing  an  unintelli- 
gent act  and  to  disregard  entirely  the  method  by  which  the  hu- 
man mind  increases  its  experience  and  knowledge.  We  need  to 
implant  the  ideas  first  and  surround  them  with  beautiful  and 
iiispiring  associations,  then,  just  at  the  moment  when  the  child 
halts  in  expression  for  lack  of  words  in  which  to  clothe  his 
thought,  our  form  of  words  comes  in  to  crown  and  make  explicit 
the  already  implicit  idea." 

Some  of  the  ideas  contained  in  the  Church  Caicehism  are 
entirely  beyond  the  experience  of  children  of  seven  and  eight 
years  old:  but  the  ideas  contained  in  it  which  do  appeal  to  little 
children  are  so  great  and  important  that  we  have  all  we  can  do 
before  the  child  leaves  the  infant  school  to  fill  these  ideas  with 
content  and  set  them  in  an  atmosphere  of  reverence  and  love. 
For  instance,  in  order  that  a  child  may  grasp  something  of  the 
meaning  of  the  phrase  "Communion  of  Saints,"  the  word 
"Saint"  miist  have  ineaning  and  associations  for  him.  Thus  we 
do  not  think  time  wasted  if  we  devote  six  lessons  to  filling  with 
content  the  word  "Saint"  or  half  the  year  to  the  first  two  para- 
graphs in  the  Creed,  before  the  children  have  presented  to  them 
the  words  of  either  one  or  the  other.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that 
little  children  should  never  learn  by  heart  what  they  do  not 
fully  understand;  they  do  not  fully  understand  the  Lord's 
Prayer — who  would  stay  them  from  that?  But  there,  and  in 
similar  cases,  we  have  a  form  of  words  of  permanent  value, 
which  will  fill  with  ever-increasing  content  as  life  goes  on,  and 
of  which  the  child  has  already  a  vague  and  misty  notion  concen- 
trated round  the  ever-familiar  word  "Father." 

The  Catechism. 

One  exception  is  nevertheless  made  by  Professor  Fitch, 
and  that  is  to  the  Church  Catechism.  He  says  that  it  is  particu- 
larly well-balanced,  systematic,  orderly,  and  well-worded  as  to 
the  form  of  answers.     So  far  as  he  will  admit  the  use  of  Ques- 


MF.MOKN    AND   FTS   TI^\IN[Xf!  349 

tion-nnrl-Aiiswcr  Lessons  at  all,  he  favors  the  Catechism.  This 
however  brinp^s  up  another  mooted  point,  which  we  will  dispose 
of  here. 

Drawbridge  sa3's:  "The  Church  .'^oO  years  ago  provided  the 
Catechism;  tliat  is  sufTicient;  the  problem  has  been  solved,  once 
for  all,  by  those  who  drew  up  the  Catechism.''  He  will  then 
simply  tell  the  teachers  to  com])el  the  children  to  commit  it  all 
to  memory,  from  N.  or  "M.  to  the  definition  of  the  Sacraments. 
The  teachers,  however,  who  for  the  most  part  are  apt  to  follow 
the  line  of  least  resistance,  will  probably,  as  far  as  possible, 
avoid  taking  this  course,  because  it  is  most  strongly  objected  to 
by  their  pupils.  Some  of  the  teachers  will  carefully  avoid  forc- 
ing the  children  to  commit  the  Catechism  to  memory,  because  of 
the  great  diflficulty  of  doing  so.  Others  will  persistently  avoid 
this  irksome  task,  because  they  feel  that  the  very  essence  of  the 
art  of  education  is  to  interest,  and  to  hold  the  attention  of  the 
pupils;  and  that  the  Catechism  bores  children  intensely,  and  is 
always  very  much  objected  to  by  them.  Others  will  neglect  to 
teach  it,  on  the  ground  that  every  modern  educationalist  main- 
tains most  strongly,  as  the  chief  axioms  of  this  art,  that  exam- 
ples should  precede  rules;  that  the  concrete  should  be  taught 
before  the  abstract;  that  experience  must  come  before  education; 
that  the  simple  must  be  learned  before  the  complex;  that  facts 
should  be  taught  before  their  definitions;  ideas  before  phrase- 
ology ;  religion  before  theological  dogmas ;  and  so  on.  Other 
teachers  will  endeavor  to  shirk  the  teaching  of  the  Catechism, 
on  the  ground  that  the  capacity  to  repeat  words  and  phrases 
(however  excellent  they  may  be)  is  not  synonymous  with  saint- 
liness.  They  will  contend  that  the  essence  of  religion  is  rela- 
tionship with  Cod,  rather  than  a  feat  of  memory.  They  do  not 
believe  in  the  "parrot-like  repetition  of  unintelligible  words.'' 
Others  will  consistently  avoid  teaching  the  Catechism  on  the 
ground  that  the  requirement  of  the  child  should  suggest  the 
subject  to  be  taught;  and  that  the  fitness  of  any  subject  to  the 
needs  of  the  pupil  may  be  measured  by  the  hitter's  interest  in  it, 
and  attraction  towards  it.  That  is  to  say,  that  Nature  is  the 
best  guide;  intellectual  and  spiritual  appetite  being  (lod's  own 
hint  as  to  what  will  benefit  the  pupil  most. 


;i50  KKLIGIOUH    EDUCATION 

Should  Anything  be  Learned  that  is  not  Fully  Understood? 

Professor  llubbell  says,  "Yes,"  but  with  caution.  "It  is 
not  necessary  for  a  child  to  wait  until  he  is  able  to  understand 
cverytliing  which  he  commits  to  memory."  This  should  not  be 
carried  to  excess.  The  amount  tliat  he  learns  before  fully  com- 
j)rehending  it  should  be  well-nigh  infinitesimal,  as  compared 
with  the  total  amount  of  memoriter  work.  Granted  that  the 
age  from  S  to  11  is  the  best  time  for  memorizing,  what  position 
should  we  take  as  to  the  Catechism?  For,  of  course,  we  know 
that  at  least  the  Sacraments  Part  cannot  be  even  half  taken  in 
by  the  child  at  that  age.  It  is  far  too  abstract.  For  ourselves, 
we  are  inclined  to  commit  to  memory  then,  and,  save  for  the 
simplest  explanation,  leave  the  exposition  of  it  until  the  Con- 
firmation Period,  that  is,  until  the  age  of  Beflection  is  reached 
at  Adolescence.  We  find  the  wording  of  the  Catechism  too  hard 
to  be  handled  late  in  youth,  and  the  harm  of  non-understood 
memorizing  to  this  slight  extent,  too  insignificant,  to  reverse 
this  procedure. 

W.  C.  Hewitt  says  that  the  child  needs  a  philosophy  of 
life.  At  best,  with  most  of  us  life  is  very  imperfect,  but  with- 
out some  noble  conception  of  duty  beyond  us  and  above  us,  it  is 
bound  to  be  worse.  Teachers  should  not  ask  children  to  learn 
selections  which  they  themselves  do  not  know.  In  the  writers 
experience  much  of  the  failure  to  make  memory  work  inspiring 
is  that  teachers  do  not  move  forward  in  front.  It  has  been  a 
very  common  experience  to  find  teachers  of  the  grades  unal)le 
themselves  to  recite  the  amount  they  have  required  of  their 
pupils.  Where  such  a  condition  exists  memory  work  is  sure  to 
be  a  fizzle.  Only  a  few  lines  should  be  given  at  a  time.  This 
will  make  the  task  eas}^,  and  give  pupils  a  chance  to  think  over 
the  idea.  If  tlie  teacher  learns  the  selection  with  the  class,  there 
will  be  little  danger  of  assigning  too  much  to  be  learned.  Ex- 
perience shows  that  the  pupils  who  commit  to  memory  very 
simple  things  do  great  things  with  them :  they  quote  them  to 
others,  use  them  in  writing,  and  in  hours  of  silence  or  tempta- 
tion, turn  them  over  in  their  minds.  If  a  thing  is  read  but 
once  or  twice,  there  is  very  little  to  think  over,  indeed  much 
reading  destroys   thinking,  just  as   two   picture?   on   the   same 


MKMOR^-   A\D    FTS  TRAIXrXr;  Uf)! 

negative  blur  eiieli  other.    Wliat  is  in  the  memory  is  in  tlie  mind, 
and  is  independent  of  book,  teacher,  or  circumstance. 

Mr.  Charles  B.  Gilbert  remarks:  "There  is  no  learning 
without  corresponding  expression.  j\Iemorizing  is  not,  neces- 
sarily, learning  in  the  true  sense.  Unless  the  whole  mind  is 
employed  there  is  no  nutrition.  Consequently,  there  is  enor- 
mous waste  in  our  educational  processes.  Where  expression  is 
ignored  tlie  It-arning  is  bogus;  it  does  not  enter  into  the  make- 
uj)  of  the  mind.  In  such  schools,  only  when  acquisition  in  the 
school  is  supplemented  by  the  activities  of  the  life  out  of  school 
is  there  true  learning  at  all." 

The  Importance  of  Youth. 

I'rof.  Minot  says :  "For  if  it  be  true  that  the  decline  in  the 
])ower  of  learning  is  most  rapid  at  first,  it  is  evident  that  we 
want  to  make  as  much  use  of  the  early  years  as  possible — tiiat 
the  tendency,  for  instance,  which  has  existed  in  many  of  our 
universities,  to  postpone  the  period  of  entrance  into  college  is 
biologically  an  erroneous  tendency.  It  would  be  better  to  have 
the  young  man  get  to  college  earlier,  graduate  earlier,  get  into 
practical  life  or  into  the  professional  schools  earlier,  while  the 
power  of  learning  is  greater. 

"Do  we  not  see,  in  fact,  that  the  new  ideas  are  indeed  fi^r 
{\\v  most  part  the  ideas  of  young  people?" 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 
[suggested  by  dr.  hebvey.] 

1.  "Illustrate   from   your  experience   how   Memory   depends   upon    the 

associative  process." 

2.  "Along  what  lines  must  we  work  to  strengthen  the  child's  Memory?" 

3.  "Wliy  does  a  boy  remember  the  baseball  scores,  or  the  girl  the  de- 

tails of  her  friend's  new  dress,  when  both  forget  the  textV" 

4.  "Can  everybody  be  trained  to  concentrated  Attention?    What  eflfect 

will  differences  in  power  of  Attention  have  on  our  dealing  with 
different  members  of  a  class?" 

5.  "What  are  the  advantages  of  Verbal  Memorizing,  and  how  is  it  best 

done?     Illustrate." 


CHAPTEK  XXL 

THE    INCULCATION    AND  TRAINING   OF    HABITS. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

•Talks  to  Teaciieks.     James,     pp.  69-79. 

Sunday  School  Science.     Holmes,     pp.  20-21. 

•Teacheu  Training.     Roads,     pp.  78-81. 

The  Making  of  Character.     MacCunn.     pp.  125-222. 

Habit  in  Education.     liadestovk. 

*A  Study  in  Child  Nature.     Harrison.     Chapters  II,  III,  IV. 

♦Principles  of  Teaching.     Thorndike.     pp.  105,  199,  235-250,  179-194. 

Education  and  Life.     Baker,     pp.  92/jf. 

The  Foundations  op  Education.     Heeley.     pp.  85-90. 

♦Character  Building.     Colcr.     pp.  108-109. 

♦The  Mind  of  a  Child.     Richmond,     pp.  42-47. 

How  TO  Win.     Willard.     Chapter  VIII. 

The  School  and  Society.     Dewey,     p.  39. 

The  Moral  Trinity  of  the  School.     Dewey,  in  Third  Year  Herbart  Book. 

Pedagogical  Bible  School.     Haslett. 

Habit-Forming. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  purpose  of  Education  as 
that  of  Character-Building.  Character,  we  have  shown,  is  but 
the  acquisition  of  certain  particular  bundles  of  Habits.  The 
ultimate  aim  and  purpose  of  Church,  Sunday  School,  Eeligion, 
and  the  School,  is  really  Character  or  Habit-forming.  The  par- 
ticular point-of-view  by  which  the  Church  differs  from  the  World 
in  its  education  is  to  set  the  ultimate  sanction  or  rule  for  good 
conduct,  not  merely  Society  and  our  Fellowmen,  but  God;  and 
to  refer  the  basis  of  all  action  and  thought  to  the  moral  law 
within  us,  expressing  God's  divine  Will. 

Habit,  the  End  of  School  Work. 

Sow  a  thought  and  reap  a  deed. 
Sow  a  deed  and  reap  a  habit. 
Sow  a  habit  and  reap  a  character. 
Sow  a  character  and  reap  a  destiny. 

"I  wonder,"  queries  Professor  Seeley,  "how  fully  the  teacher 
enters  into  the  thought  that  education  is  to  transform  into  habit 
whatever  ought  to  belong  to  our  nature?" 


Till-:  l\(  I  1. CATION   A\i)   ruAIXlXc;  OF  llAiilTS  :',:,:', 

The   Sub-Conscious  Field   of  Habit. 

W'c  have  spoken  of  I  lie  fad  that  I'vcrytliiiig  exporienced 
inlhu'iK-rs  us  at  some  time,  even  tlioutrh  we  may  seemingly  have 
I'orgoKen  the  experience  or  fact.  Wo  said  that  some  time  or 
(ttlief  we  acted  dilTci-ent ly.  as  the  fcsult.  So  evil  impressions, 
long-roru-ottt'u  stories  with  impure  taint  oi-  underhand  motive, 
sneaky  actions  we  saw,  had  examples  we  set.  careless  word  or  act 
on  the  part  of  a  teacher  at  the  time  passed  over  lightly,  all  and 
every  one  of  thes(>  will  at  some  future  tinu'  inlluence  a  word,  a 
ilvvd.  or  at  least  a  thought.  Truly  "no  man  livelh  to  liimsell'.'' 
Every  boy  and  girl  should  he  especially  shielded  from  harmful 
words  and  sights,  and  should  he  especially  suhjected  to  pnre  ami 
lofty.  nol)le  and  idealistic  surroundings.  Many  a  boy  has  en- 
tered the  Sacred  Ministry  or  labored  in  the  Missionary  Field, 
as  the  outcome  of  a  noble  teacher's  life  and  words;  and  above 
all,  consistent  and  consecrated,  devott'd  life.  It  was  the  Sunday 
School  Teacher  of  the  ])resent  author  liimself  who  was  the 
means  of  his  entering  (Jod's  work  in  the  Church's  Ministry, 
(lood  (not  "goody")  books,  early  read,  will  in  after  years  almost 
invariablv  bear  sweet  fruition. 

Specialization   in    Habit   Formation. 

Professor  Thorndike  says:  "All  that  can  be  done  to  ])ut  to- 
gether what  ought  to  go  together  is  iirst  to  teach  the  neces- 
sary form,  and  to  arrange  circumstances  with  more  or  less  of 
probability  that  the  ])U])il  will  supply  the  desired  movement. 
A  motor  act  for  which  no  prt-sent  use  or  bearing  is  seen,  such  as 
singing  a  solitary  note  over  aiul  over,  or  writing  exercises,  or 
drawing  lines  that  express  no  fact  of  moment,  can  arouse  little 
interest.  And  since  notes  are  to  be  used  always  in  songs,  the 
curves  be  written  always  in  words  and  sentences,  the  lines  to  be 
drawn  always  in  a  picture  of  sonu'thing,  it  is  safe  to  follow  the 
law  of  habit  formation  and  so  nud<e  them  from  the  start. 

"Common  observation  should  teach  that  mental  capacities 
are  highly  si)ecialized.  A  man  nuiy  be  a  tip-top  musician  but 
in  other  resjx'cts  an  imbecile;  he  may  be  a  gifted  poet,  but  an 
ignoranuis  in  music;  he  may  have  a  wonderful  memory  for 
figures  and  only  a  mediocre  memory  for  localities,  poetry  or 
human  faces.     School  children  mav  reason  admirablv  in  science 


354  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

and  be  below  the  average  in  grammar ;  those  very  good  in  draw- 
ing may  be  very  poor  in  dancing.  Careful  measurements  show 
that  the  specialization  is  even  greater  than  ordinary  observa- 
tion leads  one  to  suppose.  For  instance  those  individuals  who 
are  the  highest  ten  out  of  a  hundred  in  the  power  to  judge  dif- 
ferences in  length  accurately  are  by  no  means  the  highest  ten  in 
the  ability  to  judge  differences  in  weights  accurately." 

Professor  Thorndike  deals  with  the  subject  thus :  "From 
investigations,  it  seems  clear  that  the  disciplinary  value  of  stud- 
ies has  been  much  exaggerated.  The  one  thing  of  which  a 
teacher  can  be  sure  is  the  particular  information,  the  particular 
habits  and  powers,  the  particular  interests  and  ideals  which  his 
training  gives  directly;  he  may  fairly  expect  improvement,  but 
less  in  amount,  in  abilities  closely  like  that  trained;  he  may 
hope  for  some  in  more  remote  abilities,  but  for  less  and  less  and 
finally  for  none  as  the  ability  has  less  and  less  kinship  with  the 
one  directly  trained.  The  practical  consequences  are:  First, 
that  it  is  extremely  unsafe  to  teach  anything  simply  because  of 
its  supposed  strengthening  of  attention  or  memory  or  reasoning 
ability  or  any  other  mental  power;  when  a  teacher  can  give  no 
other  reason  for  a  certain  lesson  or  method  of  teaching  than  its 
value  as  discipline,  the  lesson  or  method  should  be  changed. 

"One  mental  function  or  activity  improves  others  in  so  far 
as  and  because  they  are  in  part  identical  with  it,  because  it  con- 
tains elements  common  to  them.  Addition  improves  multipli- 
cation because  multiplication  is  large  addition;  knowledge  of 
Latin  gives  increased  ability  to  learn  French  because  many  of 
the  facts  learned  in  the  one  ease  are  needed  in  the  other." 

In  professor  Thorndike's  Summary  on  Formal  Discipline 
he  adds:  "Whether  or  no  we  get  as  much  general  improvement 
from  special  training  as  we  might  wish,  what  we  do  get  comes  in 
no  other  way.  Each  special  task  adds  its  mite  to  the  general 
store.  Intellect  and  character  are  strengthened,  not  by  any 
subtle  and  easy  metamorphosis,  but  by  the  establishment  of 
particular  ideas  and  acts  under  the  law  of  habit. 

"There  is  no  way  of  becoming  self-controlled  except  by  to- 
day, to-morrow,  and  all  the  days  in  each  little  conflict  control- 
ling oneself.  There  is  no  possibility  of  gaining  general  accuracy 
and  thoroughness  except  by  seeking  accuracy  in  every  situation, 


Til  10  IMCL'I.CATION  AND  TRAINING  OF  HABITS  :Jy5 

by  trying  to  be  thorough  in  every  tusk,  by  being  accurate  and 
thorough  rather  than  slip-shod  and  mediocre  whenever  the  choice 
is  ofrered.  Xo  one  becomes  honest  save  by  telling  the  truth,  or 
trustworthy  save  by  fulfilling  each  obligation  he  accepts.  No 
one  may  win  the  spirit  of  love  and  service  who  does  not  day  by 
day  and  hour  by  liour  do  each  act  of  kindness  and  help  which 
chance  ])uts  in  his  way  or  his  own  thoughtfulncss  can  discover. 
The  mind  docs  not  give  something  for  nothing.  The  price  of  a 
disciplined  intellect  and  will  is  eternal  vigilance  in  the  forma- 
tion of  habits." 

Rules  of  Habit  Formation. 

Professor  James  gives  the  groat  laws  under  which  we  can 
launch  New  Habits  and  strengthen  or  break  off  Old  Ones. 

1.  In  acquiring  a  New  Habit  or  leaving  off  an  Old  One, 
we  must  taJce  care  to  commence  with  as  strong  an  initiative  as 
possible.  Reinforce  the  right  motives  and  surroundings,  and 
put  just  as  many  obstacles  as  yon  can  in  the  way  of  the  old 
ones.  If  it  deals  with  the  body,  use  the  muscles  you  wish  to 
make  active.  If  the  Will,  use  it.  If  an  evil  habit,  do  not  run 
within  the  slightest  possible  range  of  the  temptation.  Change 
surroundings,  break  off  companions,  make  the  break  absolute, 
not  partial  and  incomplete.  Stamp  the  new  ideal  into  the 
mind  strongly,  and  so  vigorously  that  it  remains  fastened  there, 
and  even  crops  up  at  times  when  no  need  occurs.  This  is  the 
point  in  pledge-signing,  in  oath-taking,  in  going  before  God's 
Altar  for  impressivenesss,  etc.  It  makes  a  strong  and  powerful 
initiative;  it  stamps  in  a  vivid,  never-dying,  ineffaceable  im- 
pression. With  this  new  Ideal,  it  will  be  the  height  of  courage, 
not  of  cowardice,  to  run  away  from  the  forbidden  field,  the  place 
of  strong  temptation. 

2.  His  second  maxim  is,  "Never  suffer  an  Exception  to 
occur,  until  the  new  Tidbit  is  securely  rooted  in  your  life.  Each 
lapse  is  the  unwinding  of  the  ball  of  twine.  It  is  important  that 
you  never  allow  a  single  slip  to  occur.  Every  gain  on  the  wrong 
side  undoes  the  effect  of  many  more  conquests  on  the  right  side 
of  the  war."  So,  too,  in  strengthening  a  habit  already  formed. 
Use  it  constantly,  not  occasionally;  systematically,  not  with 
breaks. 


35G  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

3.  Another  potent  rule  is,  "Use  every  Emotional  Prompt- 
ing to  act  on  your  Neiv  Resolution,  and  seize  the  first  oppor- 
tunity for  so  doing.  Have  no  hesitation  or  wavering."  Act 
quickly,  before  you  doubt  your  power.  "He  who  hesitates  is 
lost."  Completely  surrender  yourself  to  the  certainty  that  you 
will  never,  never,  never  fail  in  your  resolution.  Remember  that 
every  resolve  you  make,  every  good  impulse  thought  of,  but  not 
acted  upon,  every  intention  to  do  good  or  to  help  the  poor  or  to 
make  some  sacrifice,  every  motive  that  ends  simply  and  solely 
in  the  pious  wish  does  infinite  harm.  There  is  a  certain  warm 
abode,  proverbially  paved  with  good  intentions.  Thousands  of 
good  intentions  unfulfilled,  stimuli  unreacted  to,  diminish  our 
resolution,  decrease  our  will  and  self-reliance,  precisely  as  unused 
muscles,  which  become  soft  and  flabby. 

4.  Thus  note  his  last  advice.  "Don't  preach  too  much  to 
your  pupils  or  abound  in  good  talk  in  the  abstract.  Lie  in  wait 
rather  for  the  practical  opportunities,  and  thus  at  one  operation 
get  your  pupils  to  both  think,  and  feel,  and  do.  The  strokes  of 
behaviour  are  what  give  the  new  set  to  the  character."  It  is 
thus  the  action  that  is  the  main  thing.  He  cites  the  pathetic 
instance  of  Darwin,  who  utterly  lost  all  appreciation  of  art, 
poetry,  music,  painting,  etc.,  through  total  application  to  facts 
of  science.  We  pave  our  lives  with  good  intentions  of  what  "we 
intend  to  do  some  day  when  we  have  time." 

Other  Suggestions. 

1.  Mrs.  Birney  teaches:  "You  cannot  punish  a  child  into 
being  good.  Submission  may  be  gained,  but  at  a  dear  price,  for 
if  the  punishment  have  an  element  of  injustice  in  it  (as  it,  alas! 
frequently  has)  the  memory  of  it  ofttimes  rankles  in  a  child's 
mind  and  may  bear  the  bitter  fruit  of  resentment  for  years  to 
come.  The  parent  who  tries,  in  imagination,  to  put  himself  in 
the  child's  place  will  give  no  needless  commands,  and  will  never 
allow  himself  to  punish  a  child  or  fix  a  penalty  when  he  is  under 
the  influence  of  anger  or  impatience.  Eeverence  for  God's  laws, 
love,  sympathy  and  confidence  between  parents  and  children, 
are  the  watch-fires  which  shouhl  be  kept  l)urning  in  every 
home." 

2.  According  to   See:  "Unfortunatelv  the  word   habit  is 


THE   INCLI.CATIOX   AND  TUAINrNC;  OF  HABITS  .-{oT 

popularly  associated  with  tendencies  to  repetition  of  that  which 
is  evil.  As  in  the  case  of  the  feelings,  the  word  suggests  bad 
habits  rather  than  good  habits.  As  James  says,  'We  talk  of  the 
smoking-habit,  and  the  swearing-habit,  and  the  drinking-habit, 
but  not  of  the  abstention-habit,  or  the  moderation-habit,  or  the 
courage-habit,  but  the  fact  is  that  our  virtues  are  habits  as  much 
as  our  vices.' " 

3.  In  Ttie  Prtnciim.es  of  Teaching  Thorndike  says: 
"The  same  situation  may  cause  different  acts  according  to  what 
element  of  it  the  law  of  partial  activity  selects;  hence  one  means 
of  securing  right  acts  is  to  teach  children  to  think  of  that  ele- 
ment in  a  situation  which  is  morally  the  essential  one.  To 
think  of  copying  another's  work  as  'stealing'  may  make  the  habit 
impossible  to  many  pupils  w'ho  practise  it  without  hesitation  so 
long  as  they  thought  of  it  as  'what  everyone  does.'  Hence  to 
reveal  the  true  moral  meaning  of  copying  may  be  enough  to 
prevent  it.  The  occasional  faults  and  failures  of  children  who 
are  in  general  well  disposed  are  very  often  failures  to  select  the 
morally  essential  element,  to  put  the  situation  in  the  proper 
class,  to  call  it  by  its  right  name." 

3.  Thorndike  adds:  "There  is  a  fundamental  difference 
between  getting  ideas  of  what  is  good  and  wishing  to  be  good. 
The  first  is  a  response  of  knowledge;  the  second,  of  attitude. 
There  is  an  equal  difference  between  wishing  to  be  good  and 
being  good.  The  latter  is  a  response,  not  of  attitude,  but  of 
action." 

The  Elements  of  Moral  Training. 

The  Training  of  Character  is  correspondingly  complex. 
Useful  instincts  must  be  given  a  chance  to  exercise  themselves 
and  become  habits.  Harmful  instinctive  responses  must  be  in- 
hibited througli  lack  of  stimulus,  through  the  substitution  of  de- 
sirable ones  or  through  actual  resultant  discomfort,  says  Thorn- 
dike. 

Adding :  "From  the  law  of  suggestion,  that  any  idea  tends 
to  result  in  its  appropriate  act  if  no  competing  idea  or  physical 
impediment  prevents,  is  derived  the  principle  that  in  so  far  as 
the  important  thing  is  to  get  the  right  act  done,  and  in  so  far 
as  the  comprehension  of  why  it  is  right  and  the  decision  to  per- 


358  RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

form  it  are  relatively  unimportant,  to  that  extent  suggestion  is 
an  efficient  means  of  moral  influence.  This  same  principle  im- 
plies the  folly  of  any  extended  discussion  of  wrong  acts  which 
would  be  done  only  rarely  and  by  a  few  members  of  a  class. 
Such  a  discussion  is  more  likely  to  suggest  the  act  to  pupils  who 
would  otherwise  never  have  committed  it  than  to  prevent  it." 

Miss  Harrison  says:  "The  overwhelming  moral  need  of 
mankind  lies  in  the  world  of  the  lower  senses.  The  non-training 
of  those  is  exceedingly  dangerous  because  they  have  direct  effect 
upon  the  will.  As  we  look  abroad  over  the  world,  what  do  we 
perceive  to  be  the  chief  cause  of  the  wrecks  and  ruins,  of  the 
wretchedness  and  misery  which  lie  about  us?  Why  have  we  on 
every  hand  such  dwarfed  and  stunted  characters?  For  what 
reason  do  crimes,  too  polluting  to  be  mentioned  save  where 
remedy  is  sought,  poison  our  moral  atmosphere  until  our  great 
cities  become  fatal  to  half  the  young  men  and  women  who  come 
to  them?  Why  do  our  clergy  and  other  reformers  have  to  labor 
so  hard  to  attract  the  hearts  of  men  to  what  is  in  itself  glorious 
and  beautiful  ? 

"Is  it  not,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  because  mankind  has  not 
learned  to  subordinate  the  gratification  of  physical  appetite  to 
rational  ends?  It  is  to  be  seen  in  every  phase  of  society;  from 
the  rich  and  favored  dame,  so  enervated  by  soft  chairs  and  tem- 
pered lights  and  luxurious  surroundings  that  she  is  blind  to  the 
sight  of  misery  and  deaf  to  the  cry  of  despair,  down  through  the 
grades  where  we  find  the  luxuries  of  the  table  the  only  luxiirics 
indulged  in,  and  "plain  living  and  high  thinking"  the  excep- 
tion; still  farther  down  in  indulgence  to  the  poor  drunkard 
who  sacrifices  family  life  for  the  gratification  of  his  insatiable 
thirst,  down  to  the  pitiable  wretch  who  sells  her  soul  that  her 
body  may  live. 

"Do  not  their  lives,  all  of  them,  contradict  that  significant 
question  of  the  Son  of  God :  'Is  not  the  body  more  than  the  rai- 
ment? Is  not  the  life  more  than  the  meat?'  The  sense  of 
taste  has  two  offices,  relish  and  power  to  discriminate;  the  first, 
for  the  reproducing  of  certain  pleasant  sensations  in  the  mouth 
or  stomach,  and  the  second,  for  the  judging  between  wholesome- 
ness  and  unwholesomeness  of  food,  the  latter  being  taste  proper. 

"The  former  is  the  gratification  of  the  sense  for  the  sake  of 


THE  INCULCATION  AND  TRAINING  OF  HABITS  359 

sensation,  and  leads  through  over-indulgence  directly  into  glut- 
tony, which,  in  its  turn,  leads  into  sensuality.  In  history  not 
until  a  nation  begins  to  send  far  and  wide  for  delicacies  and 
condiments  for  its  markets  and  tables  does  it  become  voluptuous 
and  sensual.  When  we  speak  of  'the  degenerate  days  of  Rome' 
do  not  pictures  of  their  over-loaded  tables  rise  before  the  mind's 
eye? 

"I  made  a  tour  of  a  number  of  the  Christmas  displays  of  the 
toy  departments  of  several  of  our  large  stores.  What  do  you 
suppose  were  the  gifts  there  displayed,  ready  for  women  pur- 
chasers to  present  to  their  fathers,  husbands,  sons,  or  lovers? 
Pipes,  cigar-holders,  ash-trays,  and  various  other  appointments 
of  a  smokers  outfit.  On  the  other  hand  with  equal  emphasis, 
was  told  the  chief  demand  of  woman-kind  in  the  abundant  sup- 
ply of  manicure  and  other  toilet  articles.  Knowing  the  inevit- 
able law  that  it  is  the  demand  which  creates  the  supply,  there  is 
but  one  conclusion  to  be  drawn :  viz :  that  women  when  they  wish 
to  please  men,  give  them  gifts  of  self-indulgence ;  and  men,  when 
they  desire  to  gratify  women,  give  them  gifts  demanded  by  their 
vanity;  and  the  great  shadowy  lesson  stands  out  in  the  back- 
ground. What  do  our  boys  most  need  in  their  training?  What 
is  the  great  lack  in  the  education  of  our  girls?  Is  it  that  our 
gifts  shall  supply  the  demands  of  self-indulgence  and  vanity? 
Is  it  not  more  self-control  for  our  sons  and  deeper  aims  and 
purposes  in  life  for  our  daughters?" 

Cultivation  of  Doing. 

To  children  of  action  the  schools  have  been  in  the  past 
least  well  adapted.  Children  often  complain  of  school  that 
there  is  nothing  to  do;  boys  who  apparently  get  little  out  of 
school  learn  quickly  and  surely  in  the  world  of  business  and  in- 
dustry; students  who  could  not  manage  their  college  studies 
become  eminent  managers  of  men. 

Here  are  some  suggestions : 

Mere  Manual  Activity. — Doing  in  order  to  understand  better. 
Things  in  connection  with  the  lessons — maps  (drawn,  modelled, 
relief,  clay,  pulp,  colors,  etc.),  objects  referred  to  in  lessons  (of 
paper,  wood,  metal,  or  on  paper,  drawn  or  painted),  Symbols, 
Schemes,  Outlines,  Written  Work  in  general. 


;5()0  RKLIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

Personal  If  ah  its. — Cleanliness,  Neatness,  Order,  Punctual- 
ity, Dress,  Politeness,  Gentleness  of  Voice  and  Manner,  Manli- 
ness, Courage,  Kindness,  Pity  and  Love  for  all  Animals,  etc. 

Moral  or  Ethical  Habits. — Duty  to  Fellowmen.  Honesty, 
Trutlifulness,  Honor,  Purity,  Soberness,  Sobriety,  Unselfish- 
ness, Laws  of  the  Land,  Ideal  of  the  Spirit  of  the  Laws,  Health 
Kegulations,  etc. 

Habits  of  Duly  to  God  and  EeUyious  Obligations. — Observa- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Day,  of  Worship  (public  and  daily  morning 
and  evening,  private),  of  Thanksgiving,  of  Holy  Communion, 
of  Giving,  of  Temperate  Language,  avoidance  of  even  the  least 
forms  of  Oaths  or  Swearing,  etc. 

It  is  in  the  province  and  duty  of  the  Teacher  to  enquire 
liow  these  teachings  are  practically  fulfilled  in  the  doing,  to 
suggest  ideals  for  fulfilment — positive,  not  negative.  "Do  this 
good  thing"  is  far  better  than  "Do  not  do  this  bad  one.''  James 
says :  "Everything  that  a  man  can  avoid  under  the  notion  that 
it  is  bad,  he  may  also  avoid  under  the  notion  that  something 
else  is  good."  Cultivate  the  good  side — high  ideals.  "He  whose 
life  is  based  upon  the  word  'no,'  who  tells  the  truth  because  a 
lie  is  wicked — is  in  an  inferior  situation  in  every  respect  to 
what  he  would  be  if  the  love  of  truth  and  magnanimity  pos- 
sessed him  from  the  outset."  It  is  James'  "expulsive  power  of 
the  higher  emotion." 

Ennis  Pichmond  strikes  the  right  keynote  here:  "To  each 
child  come  in  degree  temptations  of  his  age;  each  child  should 
be  armed  to  meet  the  temptation,  not  by  a  warning  against  the 
fault  to  which  the  temptation  belongs,  but  by  training  in  its 
opposing  virtue.  And  the  great  advantage  of  this  is  that  the 
youngest  child  may  be  learning  the  beauty  of  the  highest  vir- 
tue, while  yet  its  temptations  are  to  faults  which  are  but  the 
merest  initial  downward  tendencies,  tendencies  which,  if  left 
unchecked,  will  become  faster  and  faster  as  years  crowd  on, 
faults  indeed  and  speedily  vices,  but  which  while  our  children 
are  little  are  just  so  many  opportunities  ready  to  our  hands  for 
the  strengthening  and  uplifting. 

"A  child  ought  to  leani  while  he  is  (juite  young  that  his 
wanting  to  do  a  thing  is  not  a  reason  for  his  doing  it.  The 
tiling  desired  affects  himself,  it  becomes  at  once  for  that  reason 


Till';   IXCll.C  Al'ION    AND  TKAININC   oj'   IIAI'.ITS  ;;iil 

inimonsc  in  his  (Acs,  all  else  rclircs  hcliiiid  it;  tlic  thin<j^  dcsinM], 
iiiafjnificd,  thus  blots  out  all  else,  for  tiio  moment  nothinfr  else 
is  visihlo;  strai<rht  out  the  hand  goes  to  grasp.'' 

Some  of  the  Most  Important  Habits. 

.Mrs.  Jiirney  further  says:  "l-'ir>l  I  should  place  ho)icsfi/ — 
and  here  let  me  remind  parents  Ihat  niaiiv  children  are  dis- 
honest through  ignorance;  they  literally  ilo  not  realize  the 
serious  nature  of  disltoiiesty,  and  cannot  see  why  it  is  worse  to 
tell  a  falseliood.  or  even  take  change  from  a  forbidden  purse, 
than  to  tear  their  clothing  through  carelessness  or  to  be  over- 
bearing and  insolent  with  a  subordinate.  Such  children  need 
to  be  given  object-lessons  in  simple  justice,  and  it  should  be 
clearly  shown  them  on  what  a  tottering  basis  their  own  cher- 
ished possessions  and  plans  would  rest  if  dishonesty  were  the 
rule  rather  than  the  exception. 

"Xext  to  honesty,  I  should  place  decision.  Many  a  man  and 
woman  fail  through  lack  of  this  quality.  They  are  energetic, 
capable  and  willing,  but  they  let  opportunities  slip  past  them 
because  they  cannot  decide  what  is  best  until  the  opportunities 
are  gone  and  they  realize  too  late  the  price  their  vacillation  has 
cost. 

^'In  a  hundred  small  ways  he  can  be  trained  to  make  choice 
of  material  things,  and  the  exercise  of  decision  in  this  direction 
will  enable  him  the  more  quickly  to  make  a  wise  choice  in  mat- 
ters of  greater  nionient.  If  he  be  purchasing  cravats,  give  him 
so  many  minutes  to  decide  which  he  will  take,  and  caution  him 
against  ever  expressing  a  verbal  regret  once  choice  is  made. 

"Xext  in  order  should  come  imnduaUii],  which  includes  con- 
sideration of  others,  courtesy,  and  several  virtues  besides.  It  is 
a  lesson  best  taught  and  longest  remembered  by  allowing  the 
pupil  to  experience  the  unpleasant  consequences  of  tardiness." 

The  educational  process  is  manifold  and  inclusive.  Tt  em- 
braces within  its  sweep  the  entire  life  and  conduct  of  the  school, 
its  work  and  play,  its  songs  and  prayers,  its  organization  and 
methods.  Whatever  is  done  in  the  school  must  develop  the  re- 
ligious life  of  the  child  or  it  is  invalid.  Whatever  accomplishes 
that  purpose  is  educational,  for  education  is  the  life-giving  pro- 
cess.    The  instruction  of  the  lesson  period  is  but  a  part  of  the 


3f)2  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

educational  work  of  the  school.     That  given  by  the  life  of  the 
school  as  a  whole,  in  its  general  conduct  and  work,  is  equally 
vital.     Within  and  without  the  class  the  school  must  supply  the 
proper  environment  with  which  the  child  can  interact. 
Patience  in   Habit  Training. 

Trumbull,  in  quoting  from  Mr.  Hammond's  admirable  work 
on  "Dog-Training,"  says  to  the  dog-trainer:  "You  must  keep 
perfectly  cool,  and  must  suffer  no  sign  to  escape  of  any  anger 
or  impatience;  for  if  you  cannot  control  your  temper,  you  are 
not  the  one  to  train  a  dog."  "Do  not  allow  yourself,"  says  this 
instructor,  "under  any  circumstances  to  speak  to  your  pupil  in 
anything  but  your  ordinary  tone  of  voice."  And  recognizing  the 
diflficulties  of  the  case,  he  adds :  "Exercise  an  unwearied  patience, 
and  if  at  any  time  you  find  the  strain  upon  your  nerves  growing 
a  little  tense,  leave  him  at  once,  and  wait  until  you  are  perfectly 
calm  before  resuming  the  lesson."  That  is  good  counsel  for  him 
who  would  train  a  dog — or  a  cliild ;  for  in  either  dog-training  or 
child-training,  scolding — loud  and  excited  talking — is  never  in 
order. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 
[suggested  by  dr.  iiervey.] 

1.  "To    what    circumstances    is    due    the    possibility    of    our    forming 

habits?    What  proportion  of  our  daily  acts  are  habitual?" 

2.  "What  is  the  difference  between  a  good  habit  and  a  bad  habit   {a) 

physiologically;    (b)    from  the  point-of-vie\v  of  Education?" 

3.  "If  it  be  true  that  the  child  must  do  something,  before  you  can  get 

your  purchase  on  him — what  provision  can  you  make  for  'doing' 
in  yovir  Sunday  School  work  ?" 

4.  "What  is  the  fault  of  doing  all  the  talking  in  the  class  yourself? 

What  is  the  advantage  of  asking  questions?" 

5.  "What  is  there  in  habit  to  guarantee  success  in  life?" 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE  WILL  IN  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  TEACHING. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

•Talks  to  Teachers.     James,     pp.  22-45  ;  169-175. 

•Teacher  Training.     Roads,     pp.  93-95,  78-81. 

Up  Through  Childhood.     Hubbcll. 

The  New  1'sychologv.     Oordij.     pp.  152-163,  305-328. 

The  Moral  Instruction  of  Children.     Adler. 

•A  Study  in  Child  Nature.     Harrison.     Chapter  VI. 

•Elementary  I'svchology.     Thorndike.     pp.  185-190,  298/)". 

Moral  Education.     Upevcer.     pp.  161-218. 

The  Institutes  of  Education.     Laurie,     pp.  218-238. 

Self-Culture.     Clarke.     Lecture  17. 

Psychology  and  the  Psychic  Life.    Halleck.     Chapter  XIII. 

Character.     Marden. 

Character.     Smiles. 

The  Foundations  of  Education.     Seeley.     pp.  218-232. 

•Character  Building.     Coler.     pp.  17,  72,  and  81-94. 

The  Psychological  Foundations  of  Education.     Harris,     p.  300. 

Tub  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.     Gregory. 

Moral  Training  is  thus  Will-Training. 

We  have  told  you  that  Action  is  in  general  the  result  of 
Habit;  that  Habit  is  the  result  of  Attention  to  particular  and 
definite  Ideals  or  Ideas;  and  that  Voluntary  Attention  is  the 
result  of  definite  Willing.  It  is  then  ultimately  deliberating 
over  the  case,  fitting  it  to  a  diverse  number  of  ideas,  reflecting 
until  the  right  idea  comes  into  the  centre  or  focus  of  the  Atten- 
tion, and  then  definitely  holding  it  there  firmly,  until  we  act 
upon  it.  The  moral  act  is  simply  holding  fast  to  the  idea. 
Other  ideas,  in  the  margin,  incompatible  with  the  desired  one, 
are  banished,  and  die  out.  The  attended-to-one  becomes  more 
vivid,  more  intense,  and  bursts  out  into  action.  "To  think,  then, 
is  the  secret  of  the  will,  just  as  it  is  the  secret  of  the  memory. 

"Thus  your  pupils  will  be  saved,  first  by  the  stock  of  ideas 
which  you  furnish  them;  secondly,  by  the  amount  of  voluntary 
attention  that  they  can  exert  in  holding  to  the  right  ones,  how- 


.•564  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

ever  unpalatable;  and  thirdly,  by  the  several  habits  of  acting 
definitely  on  these  latter." 

Training  of  the  Will. 

We  have  noted  that  the  Stress  and  Storm  time  sees  the 
birth  of  two  new  factors,  most  influential  for  future  good  or  evil, 
Will  and  Judgment.  Hitherto  the  child's  life  has  been  chiefly 
one  of  Feeling,  guided  as  he  has  been  almost  blindly  by  Emo- 
tions and  Impulses.  He  has  not  had  the  light  of  Intellect  to 
guide  him.  Will  has  not  been  dominant,  perhaps  chiefly  because 
Intellect  and  Eeason  have  not  been  there  to  stir  it.  He  has  been 
wisely  held  in  check  by  Divine  Providence  until  development 
fitted  him  to  care  for  himself.  Animal  Instinct  has  protected 
liiiii.  He  has  been  practically  an  animal;  now  he  becomes  a 
man,  with  Intellect  and  Will  in  the  ascendency.  The  Will  must 
be  trained,  rather  than  broken.  This  is  done,  more  or  less  con- 
sciously, by  the  presentation  of  vivid  examples  that  hold  and 
attract  the  mind  and  bestir  action.  Prompt  decision,  the  habit 
of  doing  unpleasant  things  the  moment  we  see  them  in  our 
judgment  to  be  right,  without  risking  long  deliberation  and  hesi- 
tation ;  the  resolve  never  to  break  IDEALS,  nor  suffer  an  excep- 
tion to  a  noble  conception,  such  things  in  life  soon  go  to  form 
a  strong,  decisive  Will.  Stubbornness  is  not  strong  Will,  but  the 
contrary,  a  Will  too  weak  to  do  what  is  right  and  proper. 

Froebel,  in  his  Education  of  Man  says:  "Nine-tenths  of 
the  intemperate  drinking  begins  not  in  grief  and  destitution, 
as  we  often  hear,  but  in  vicious  feeding." 

Who  has  not  noticed  in  children,  over-stimulated  by  spices 
and  excesses  of  food,  appetites  of  a  very  low  order  from  which 
they  can  never  again  be  freed — appetities  which,  even  when  they 
seem  to  have  been  suppressed,  only  slumber,  and  in  times  of  op- 
portunity return  with  greater  power,  threatening  to  rob  man  of 
all  his  dignity  and  to  force  him  away  from  liis  duty? 

Miss  Harrison  says :  "The  danger  of  wrong  training  lies  not 
alone  in  the  indulgence  of  the  sense  of  taste.  Testimony  is 
not  wanting  of  the  evil  effects  of  the  cultivation  of  the  relish 
side  of  the  other  senses  also. 

"  'Do  you  not  know  who  are  usually  the  over-perfumed 
women  of  our  land  ?'  asked  I.    'And  yet  I  know  scores  of  mothers 


TTIK  WirJ,  IX  srXDAV  ScTTonr,  TIv\(  [TfXC  :«;.-) 

who  unconsciously  Iniin  their  children  to  revel  in  an  excessive 
indulgjcnce  in  perfumery.' 

"Nor  does  this  rar-i-eachiut,'  tliou^dit  sto})  with  right  and 
wrong  training  ol'  the  senses.  The  mother  who  praises  her 
child's  curls  or  rosy  elu'eks  rather  than  the  child's  actions  or 
inner  motives,  is  developing  the  I'elish  side  of  character — placing 
beauty  of  ai)j)earance  over  and  above  beauty  of  conduct.  The 
father  who  takes  his  boy  to  the  circus,  and,  passing  by  the  me- 
nagerie and  acrobat's  skill,  leaches  the  boy  to  enjoy  the  clown 
and  like  ]iarts  of  the  exhibit  ion,  is  leading  to  the  development 
of  the  relish  side  of  amusement,  and  is  training  the  child  to  re- 
gard excitement  and  recreation  as  necessarily  one  and  the  same 
thing. 

"Even  our  Suiulay  Schools,  with  their  prizes  and  exhibition.^ 
and  sensatiomil  i)rograms,  are  not  exempt  from  the  crime.  I 
have  seen  the  Holy  Easter  festival  so  celebrated  by  Sunday 
Schools  that,  so  far  as  its  efl'ects  upon  the  younger  children  were 
concerned,  they  might  each  one  as  well  have  been  given  a  glass 
of  intoxicating  liciuor,  so  upset  was  their  digestion,  so  excited 
their  brains,  so  denu)ralized  their  unused  emotions.  Xeed  I 
speak  of  the  relish  side  of  the  dress  of  children?  ,)olin  Kuskin, 
the  great  apostle  of  the  beautiful,  claims  that  no  ornament  is 
beautiful  which  has  not  a  use." 

Self-Denial. 

Professor  Jones  writes:  "Involved  in  the  very  heart  of  life 
itself  is  another  ])rinciple  as  fundamental  as  self-assertion.  It 
may  be  called  self-surrender  or  self-sacrifice.  Whatever  it  is 
named,  it  is  the  altruistic  attitude  and  endeavor.  It  is  not  a 
late  reversal  of  Nature's  ordinary  law,  struggle  for  existence, 
as  some  have  supposed.  It  is  not  something  which  has  come  in 
'afterwards.'  It  is  structural,  like  the  other  principle.  Without 
surrender  and  sacrifice  nol)otly  could  be  a  person  at  all.  The 
world  through  and  through  has  its  centripetal  and  centrifugal 
forces,  and  chaos  would  come  if  either  force  vanished.  Those 
who  have  called  self-surrender  irrational  or  super-rational  have 
failed  to  note  that  bare  self-assertion  is  just  as  irrational.  No 
real  personal  qualities  could  be  won  on  either  tack  pursued  alone. 

"We  have  come  upon  one  of  those  deep  paradoxes  of  life. 


3(50  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

To  become  a  person  one  must  both  affirm  and  deny  himself. 
One  involves  the  other.  They  are  not  totally  difl'erent  things. 
They  are  diverse  aspects  of  the  same  thing.  They  belong  to- 
gether as  indissolubly  as  the  two  sides  of  the  board  do.  To  get 
we  must  also  give,  to  advance  we  must  surrender,  to  gain  we 
must  lose,  to  attain  we  must  resign.  From  the  nature  of  things 
life  means  choice  and  selection,  and  every  positive  choice  nega- 
tives all  other  possibilities.  Every  choice  runs  a  line  of  cleavage 
through  the  entire  universe.    If  I  take  this  I  give  up  that." 

Desire  and  Will. 

According  to  Miss  Slattery :  "We  may  say,  speaking  broadly, 
that  desire  when  analyzed  is  made  up  of  impulse  and  appetite. 
The  cravings  of  the  animal  system  demanding  satisfaction  con- 
stitute the  appetites  with  their  long  train  of  results  both  good 
and  evil.  The  imitative  movements,  the  strange  promptings  to 
action  without  definite  purpose,  the  things  which  the  child  does 
because  he  'feels  like  it,'  these  make  up  impulse. 

"As  we  attempt  to  develop  the  will  along  right  lines  we  come 
to  realize  that  it  means  persistent  encouragement  of  the  inclina- 
tions toward  the  good,  and  starving  and  weeding  out  of  incli- 
nations toward  the  bad.  When  a  child  is  hungry,  he  craves  food ; 
when  thirsty,  drink.  He  is  driven  toward  gratification  of  the 
desire  that  he  may  be  satisfied.  If  the  food  and  drink  are  of  the 
right  sort  every  part  of  his  physical  being  develops  and  he  is  a 
healthy,  natural,  growing  child.  The  child  craves  companion- 
ship, active  pleasure,  love.  He  could  not  name  these  desires; 
they  are  vague.  Impulse  spurs  him  on  to  seek  companionship 
and  pleasure,  and  if  the  result  satisfies,  he  will  seek  it  again  in 
response  to  another  impulse.  If  the  companion  and  the  pleas- 
ure be  of  the  right  sort,  natural  growth  and  real  development  of 
this  part  of  his  nature  will  follow.  Whenever  a  child  feels  de- 
sire for  a  thing,  believes  he  can  secure  it,  and  so  seeks  it,  a 
definite  act  of  the  will  takes  place. 

"As  I  note  carefully  the  general  trend  of  his  appetites  and 
impulses  as  seen  in  his  actions,  the  desire  is  born  in  me  to  so 
train  the  child  that  the  lower  desire  shall  be  ruled  by  the  higher, 
until  principle  becomes  more  and  more  the  basis  of  action;  I 
desire  to  so  train  his  will  that  it  will  grow  strong  enough  to 


■Jlli:  W  ll.l,  IX  SL'NIJAV  ,SCli()(Jl.  TEACllINc;  ;!(i7 

control.  If  1  could  do  this  1  should  give  him  a  perfect  will;  all 
1  can  liope  to  do  is  to  get  as  near  the  ideal  as  possible. 

"As  his  teacher  1  am  responsible  for  neither  his  inheritance 
nor  his  home  training.  I  am  responsible  for  what  I  do  and  fail 
lo  do  wiih  him  while  he  is  in  my  charge,  and  for  what  training 
it  is  })ossil)le  for  me  to  give  him  indirectly  through  my  influence 
and  example. 

"However,  teachers  can  make  a  child  see  vividly  the  con- 
sequences of  evil  acts  and,  although  he  must  always  learn 
through  experience  largely,  the  teaching  has  its  influence.  If 
this  teaching  is  coupled  with  strong,  positive  instruction  the 
better  impulses  and  desires  can  be  awakened.  By  example  and 
story,  by  illustration  verbal  or  blackboard,  by  question  and  sug- 
gestion, by  discipline,  by  environment  so  far  as  he  can  influence 
it — in  every  possible  way  the  teacher  must  study  to  create  a 
desire  for  the  very  best.  Indeed  I  am  convinced  that  the  teach- 
er's business  is  just  this:  to  create  and  encourage  desire  for  the 
best  things  in  life." 

Choice  and  Decision. 

Professor  William  James  states :  "Writing  is  higher  than 
walking,  thinking  is  higher  than  writing,  deciding  higher  than 
thinking,  deciding  'no'  higher  than  deciding  'yes' — at  least  the 
man  who  passes  from  one  of  these  activities  to  another  will  usu- 
ally say  that  each  later  one  involved  a  greater  element  of  inner 
w^ork  than  the  earlier  ones,  even  though  the  total  heat  given  out 
or  the  foot-pounds  expended  by  the  organism  may  be  less.  Just 
how  to  conceive  this  inner  work  physiologically  is  yet  impossible, 
but  psychologically  we  all  know  what  the  word  means.  We  need 
a  particular  spur  or  effort  to  start  us  upon  inner  work:  it  tires 
us  to  sustain  it;  and  when  long  sustained,  we  know  how  easily 
we  lapse.  When  I  speak  of  'energizing'  and  its  rates  and  levels 
and  sources,  I  mean  therefore  our  inner  as  well  as  our  outer 
work." 
Strengthening  the  Will  by  Pledges. 

Professor  William  James  says  regarding  the  above:  "The 
memory  that  an  oath  or  vow  has  been  made  will  nerve  one  to 
abstinences  and  efforts  otherwise  impossible;  witness  the 
'pledge'  in  the  history  of  the  temperance  movement.     A  mere 


•■!(i8  UKLKJIOLS    EDUCATION 

promise  to  his  swft'tlR'ni't  will  t-Ienii  up  a  youth's  life  all  (n'er — 
at  any  rate  for  a  time.  For  such  effects  an  educated  suscepti- 
bility is  recpiii-ed.  Tlie  idea  of  one's  'honor,'  for  example, 
unlocks  energy  only  in  those  of  us  who  have  had  the  education 
of  a  'gentleman,'  so-called." 

That  delightful  being.  Prince  PucJder-Musl<au,  writes  to 
his  wife  from  England  that  he  lias  invented  "a  sort  of  artificial 
resolution  respecting  things  that  are  difficult  of  performance. 
My  device,"  he  continues,  "is  this:  1  gi\e  my  word  of  lumor 
most  solemnly  to  myself  to  do  or  to  leave  undone  this  or  that. 
i  am  of  coui'se  extremely  cautious  in  the  use  of  this  expedient, 
but  when  once  the  word  is  given,  even  though  1  afterwards  think 
I  have  been  precipitate  or  mistaken,  I  hold  it  to  be  perfectly 
irrevocalde,  whatever  inconvenience  I  foresee  likely  to  result.  If 
I  were  capable  of  breaking  my  word  after  such  nurture  considera- 
tion, I  should  lose  all  respect  for  myself — and  what  man  of  sense 
would  not  ju'efer  death  to  such  an  alternative?" 

Training  of  the  Judgment. 

We  talk  glibly  about  the  "credulity"  of  children.  Gordy 
says  that  the  explanation  is  simple:  "He  tends  to  believe  the 
first  suggestion  that  comes  into  his  mind,  no  matter  from  what 
source;  and  since  his  belief  is  not  the  result  of  any  rational 
process,  he  cannot  be  made  to  disbelieve  it  in  any  rational  way. 
Hence  it  happens  that  he  is  very  credulous  about  any  matter  of 
wliicli  he  has  no  ideas;  but  let  the  ideas  once  get  possession  of 
his  mind,  and  he  is  quite  as  remarkable  for  incredulity  as  before 
for  credulity.  What  reason  does  for  the  most  part,  in  the  early 
years  of  a  child's  life,  is  to  cause  him  to  abandon  beliefs  that  are 
plainly  at  variance  with  his  experience.  Men  are  precisely  the 
same,  only  we  see  incredulity,  because  of  greater  reason.  To 
keep  men  from  forming  hasty  and  false  opinions  al)out  matters, 
it  is  manifestly  necessary  to  develop  the  rational  side  of  the 
mind,  that  it  may  be  strong  enough  to  cope  with  the  believing 
propensities  of  the  mind.  Stability  of  character  is  brought  about 
by  definite  thinking  upon  worthy  things."  Gordy  puts  it  another 
way :  "Reasoning,  then,  is  the  act  of  going  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown  through  other  beliefs,  of  basing  judgments  on  judg- 
ments, reaching  beliefs  through  beliefs."'     It  is  not  Association 


Tin;  w  ii.i,  IN  SI  .\i)A\  s(  iKHiL  J  i;a(IIIX(;  :;ii!) 

of  Idoas  nit'ivly,  such  as  animals  have.  This  difTcrencc  consti- 
tutes the  main  did'orentiation  between  animals  and  men.  Ani- 
mals go  on  from  idea  to  idea,  without  seeing  the  end  in  view, 
without  thiidving  or  reasoninir  al)out  it.  One  idea  calls  up  the 
ne.xl,  and  so  on.  It  is  not  a  menial  ])ielure  or  image  or  con- 
cept with  the  animal;  rather  an  impulse  or  instinct.  Reason- 
ing only  seems  at  times  to  lead  to  false  conclusions,  because  one 
oi-  more  of  the  starting  points,  the  pi-emises,  we  call  them,  is 
false  ami  incorrect.  If  we  saw  'all  around'  the  subject,  all  sides 
of  it  truly,  we  could  not  differ  iij  reasoning.  Wrong  theories 
may  lead  to  false  assumptions,  an(T  so  side-track  reasoning." 

Two  things  must  therefore  be  done  to  train  the  reasoning 
or  judging  power  of  your  pupils.  (1)  Train  them  to  think,  to 
reason,  to  weigh  sides,  not  "jumping  at  hasty  conclusions";  but 
"thinking  twice,  before  speaking  once."  Very  soon  this  becomes 
a  fixed  habit,  that  will  go  on  through  life,  making  a  quiet,  de- 
liberate type  of  mind.  (2)  Educate  so  as  to  lesson  so  far  as 
you  can  the  power  of  personal  considerations,  individual  likes 
and  dislikes  in  selecting  the  premises  on  which  they  base  their 
decisions.  Create  in  them  such  a  love  of  the  Truth,  the  Eight 
Side,  the  Just,  as  will  be  able  to  overcome  the  ^^ersonal  equation. 
We  believe  what  we  want  to  believe.  That  is,  we  obstinately 
persist  in  holding  up  the  attractive,  though  wrong,  idea  before 
the  mind  ;  and  at  the  same  time  as  stubbornly  set  our  faces,  like 
flints,  to  the  admission  of  the  true  and  right  notions. 

Thorndike  says  in  The  Principles  of  Teaching:  "There 
is  no  royal  road  to  teaching  subjects  requiring  reasoning.  The 
student  must  have  the  facts  to  reason  with  and  have  them  ar- 
ranged in  systems  in  the  way  in  wdiich  they  will  be  needed.  He 
must  replace  the  gross  total  fact  which  suggests  notliing  or  a 
thousand  irrelevant  things  by  that  one  of  its  elements  or  fea- 
tures or  aspects  that  does  suggest  some  consequence  of  use  for 
the  solution  of  the  prol)lem  in  hand.  He  must  learn  to  criti- 
cise his  ideas  so  as  to  know  which  do  show  signs  of  usefulness  for 
his  purpose,  when  to  give  a  line  of  thought  up  as  hopeless,  and 
what  he  has  proved  when  he  has  finished.  He  must  make  sure 
that  he  has  not  somewhere  made  a  slip  by  testing  his  conclusion 
hy  actual  experience  or  by  comparison  with  facts  absolutely  cer- 
tain. 


370  RKLIOIOUS   EDUCATION 

"Good  inductive  teaching  selects  representative  particulars 
or  instructive  types  for  study,  arranges  them  so  that  the  pupil 
himself  can  realize  their  essential  elements  and  derive  the  general 
truth,  and  requires  its  application  to  new  particulars.  Good 
deductive  teaching  encourages  the  pupil  to  search  for  the  proper 
class  under  which  to  put  a  fact,  and  directs  his  search  by  syste- 
matizing it,  reducing  alternatives  and  calling  attention  to  neg- 
lected consequences. 

"In  both  cases  good  teaching  uses  comparison,  contrast,  and 
analysis  as  the  means  of  securing  attention  to  the  essential  ele- 
ment and  insists  on  the  verification  of  conclusions  by  an  appeal 
to  known  facts.  In  both  cases  a  teacher's  work  is  to  fit  the 
difficulty  of  the  reasoning  to  the  capacity  of  the  pupil  to  think 
with  parts  and  qualities.  The  common  error  is  to  never  teach 
reasoning  but  only  the  results  of  someone  else's  reasoning. 
When  this  is  done  after  a  make-believe  process  of  reasoning 
wliich  deceives  the  pupil  into  thinking  he  has  himself  solved  the 
problem,  the  result  is  still  worse." 

The  Effect  of  Music  on  the  Will. 

Much  has  been  written  on  this  subject.  James  in  his  lec- 
ture on  the  Value  of  Psychology  deals  with  it  very  fully.  It  is 
well-recognized  in  the  treatment  of  the  insane.  A  recent  opera 
in  New  York  had  to  be  taken  off  the  stage  entirely  because  of  the 
effect  upon  the  musicians,  players  and  the  audience. 

According  to  Miss  Lee :  It  is  wonderful  to  notice  the  effect 
of  music  on  children;  they  respond  so  unconsciously  but  so  un- 
mistakably. 

The  vigorous  entrance  march,  played  not  too  fast,  with 
well-marked  beat,  simple  theme,  will  generate  in  the  children  a 
mood  of  briskness  and  order.  The  change  of  music  to  a  slower 
and  softer  tone  and  then  to  silence  will  change  the  "feeling- 
tone"  of  the  children  themselves,  and  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
call  for  "silence,"  for  the  piano  has  "spoken,"  and  they  have 
responded.  The  piano  "speaks"  so  much  more  effectively,  unob- 
trusively, and  impersonally  than  superintendent  or  bell,  that  it 
is  well  in  our  infant  Sunday  School  to  minimize  our  orders 
"from  the  desk,"  and  let  the  piano,  with  its  double  chord,  tell 
the  children  to  stand  up  and  sit  down. 


TITE  WILL  IN  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  TEACHING  371 

The  ideal  children's  hymn-book  has  yet  to  be  written. 
Grown  up  people's  hymn-books  contain  little  that  is  appropriate 
to  our  Infant  Sunday  School,  though  that  litlk,'  is  often  very 
good.  Hymns  for  little  children  must  be  quite  short,  in  an  easy 
metre,  free  from  diflicult  words,  phrases,  or  inversions,  simple 
and  unified  in  thought,  and  if  possible  involving  some  kind  of 
refrain.  Hymns  should  be,  for  little  children,  a  joyous  expression 
of  feeling.  Therefore  the  singing  of  them  should  be  a  pleasure 
and  not  a  labour.  They  should  be  permeated  with  religious 
feeling ;  they  are  hymns,  not  songs ;  they  are,  in  most  cases,  pray- 
ers sung  to  God.  As  such,  then,  they  must  be  treated.  A  quiet- 
ing gesture  every  now  and  then  will  remind  the  children  not  to 
"shout." 

In  almost  every  School  there  will  be  some  pupils  whose 
hearts  will  respond  to  good  music.  A  certain  school  within  our 
acquaintance,  appreciating  this,  turns  it  to  a  fine  and  subtle  use 
by  giving  an  appropriate  musical  motif  of  two  or  three  bars, 
mostly  taken  from  the  Oratorios  to  each  of  the  Psalms  that  are 
used  for  recitation.  These  are  quickly  learned  and  recognized 
by  the  School,  and  are  played  before  the  recitation  of  each  Psalm 
in  lieu  of  other  announcement. 

The  same  school  frequently  uses  some  Wagnerian  motifs  to 
cover  the  diminishing  hum  at  the  close  of  the  lesson  and  as  calls 
to  order. 

Inter-relation  of  Intellect,  Feeling,  and  Will. 

As  Gordy  puts  it :  "Although  intellect,  sensibilit}',  and  will 
are  but  different  names  for  the  one  mind,  as  feeling  and  willing 
and  knowing,  there  is  scarcely  a  moment  in  our  waking  hours 
when  we  are  not  doing  all  three  at  the  same  time.  Examine  our 
minds  whenever  we  will,  we  shall  find  ourselves  knowing,  and 
generally  feeling  and  thinking  and  willing.  Nevertheless  we 
cannot  know  intensely  and  feel  or  will  intensely  at  the  same 
time;  or  feel  intensely  and  know  or  will  intensely  at  the  same 
time. 

"The  practical  rules  which  are  based  upon  this  law  are  so 
evident  that  it  is  needless  to  enlarge  upon  them.  You  know 
that  when  your  pupils  are  amused  they  do  not  study  much, 


.372  IlELTGIOUS    EDUCATION 

because  amusement — a  pleasurable  feeling — is  a  hindrance   to 
that  concentration  of  mind  which  we  call  study-knowing. 

"Notwithstanding  this  opposition,  there  is  an  interdepen- 
dence of  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing.  When  you  hurt  your 
hand — feeling — you  know  that  you  hurt  it,  and  you  try  to  relieve 
the  pain — willing."' 

Trumbull  Remarks: 

"Will-training  is  an  important  element  in  child-training; 
but  will-breaking  has  no  part  or  place  in  the  training  of  a  child. 
A  broken  will  is  worth  as  much  in  its  sphere  as  a  broken  bow; 
just  that,  and  no  more.  A  chikl  with  a  broken  will  is  not  so  well 
furnished  for  the  struggle  of  life  as  a  child  with  only  one  arm, 
or  one  leg,  or  one  eye.  Such  a  child  has  no  power  of  strong 
personality  or  of  high  achievement  in  the  world.  Every  child 
ought  to  be  trained  to  conform  his  will  to  the  demands  of  duty; 
but  that  is  bending  his  will,  not  breaking  it.  Breaking  a  chihrs 
will  is  never  in  order. 

"The  term  'will'  as  here  employed  applies  to  the  child's 
faculty  of  choosing  or  deciding  between  two  courses  of  action. 
Breaking  a  child's  will  is  bringing  the  pressure  of  external  force 
directly  upon  that  will,  and  causing  the  will  to  give  way  under 
the  pressure  of  that  force.  Training  a  child's  will  is  bringing 
such  influences  to  bear  upon  the  child  that  he  is  ready  to  choose 
or  decide  in  favor  of  the  right  course  of  action." 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

[suggested    by    dr.    UERVEY.l 

1.  Wliat  are  the  marks  of  a  willed  action  in  the  narrow  sense  of  the 

use  of  'Will'?" 

2.  "Explain  the  principle  of  'the  expulsive  power  of  the   higher  emo- 

tion.'   Illustrate  it  from  experience." 

3.  How  should  the  following  cases  be  diagnosed  and  treated:    A  Balky 

Will;  A  Child  bent  on  having  its  own  way;  A  Capricious  Child? 

4.  "Explain,  with  concrete  illustrations,  what  'Temptation'  is.    What 

is  it  to  yield  to  Temptation?  WHiat  is  it  to  resist  Temptation? 
By  what  means,  psychologically,  may  we  fortify  ourselves  against 
Temptation  ?" 

5.  "Why    do    so    many   good    resolutions   and    ideas    fail    to    pass    into 

movement  and  result?  What  is  the  advantage  of  this  in  the  case 
of  untoward  ideas?    What  disadvantage  in  other  cases?" 


CTTAPTER  XXIII. 
PROPER   RECITATION    BALANCE. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

•Teacher  Training.     Roads,     pp.  90-92. 
Character  Building.     Coler.     pp.  12.*M27. 
Sunday  School  Science.     Holmes,     pp.  28-33. 
•How  TO  Conduct  the  Recitation.     McMurray. 
•How  to  Plan  the  Lesson,     liroicn. 
•I'rimkk  on  Teachinc,  The  Recitation.     Adams. 

The  Right  Method  of  Conducting  the  Recitation. 

1.  First  of  all,  secure  Order,  the  very  moment  you  enter 
the  Class  Form,  not  ten  minutes  later,  after  the  spirit  of  unrest 
has  swept  through  the  scholars. 

"3.  Attack  some  educational  subject  of  general  interest, 
that  will  hold  the  attention  of  the  pupils  until  the  school  has 
foriiially  opened.  With  a  ])rogressive  teacher  and  ambitious, 
wide-awake  children,  this  advance  topic,  the  one  most  interest- 
ing, u])permost  in  the  minds  of  the  children,  eager  themselves 
foi-  il.  will  be — the  Lesson  itself.  It  will  be  the  reverse  of  a 
certain  class,  conducted  by  a  "wise  young  man"  in  a  large  city 
on  the  St.  Lawrence,  who  persuaded  his  boys  to  come  regularly 
to  Sunday  School,  and  preserve  order,  on  condition  that  the  Les- 
son lasted  no  longer  than  fifteen  minutes,  and  the  rest  of  the 
period  be  devoted  to  general  "talk"  on  baseball  and  kindred 
topics.  Granted  that  there  is  place  for  baseball,  and  many  like 
subjects,  between  the  teacher  and  his  pupils;  yet  the  place  is 
not  the  .Sunday  School  Lesson  Period.  It  may  be  previous  to 
or  after  that  time;  or  better  still  in  friendly,  personal,  social 
fellowship  with  the  teacher  during  the  week  (the  ideal  condi- 
tion of  personal  interest  in  pupils). 

According  to  Professor  See:    "The  wise  teacher  will  not 


374  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

exhaust  the  subject  in  hand  and  will  leave  avenues  of  interest 
to  be  followed  out  by  the  student." 

Adams  remarks:  "The  interesting  person  supplies  the 
premises,  but  he  leaves  his  hearers  to  draw  their  own  conclu- 
sions. That  is  their  share — a  share  that  they  enjoy,  but  your 
dull  man  does  not  spare  a  single  detail." 

In  Eoark's  Psychology  in  Education,  it  puts  it  thus: 
"N"o  good  teaching  without  attention;  no  attention  without  in- 
terest; no  interest  without  objects.  And  the  argument  holds 
good  for  all  grades  of  students,  from  the  Kindergarten  to  the 
University.  The  University  of  to-day  has  'object  lessons'  in 
almost  every  department  of  study,  as  witness  the  splendidly 
equipped  laboratories,  museums,  maps,  pictures,  etc.,  that  are  in 
daily  use.  No  teacher  of  a  country  school  should  for  a  minute 
think  that  he  can  teach  well  without  illustrative  material  any 
more  than  the  professor  of  chemistry  can  without  a  laboratory. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  remember  that  the  apparatus  must  be 
adapted  to  the  pupils'  ability  and  advancement,  and  to  the  sub- 
ject of  instruction." 

3.  In  commencing  to  teach  the  lesson,  consciously  look  out 
for  the  Point  of  best  Contact,  which  will  seldom  be  the  same. 
It  may  even  be  determined  by  certain  local,  secular  happenings 
during  the  week,  which  form  an  entree  to  general  interest. 

4.  Proceeding  then  from  the  Known  to  the  Unknown,  de- 
liberately take  up  the  Preparation  or  Introduction  of  the  Les- 
son, using  broad,  sweeping  Opening  Questions,  linking  the  new 
Topic  to  the  former  Chapters  in  the  Series.  The  Aim  of  the 
new  Lesson  should  be  clearly  presented.  It  holds  Attention  and 
Curiosity. 

The  following  suggestions  on  Conversational  Poavers 
were  written  by  Miss  Flora  Elmer:  "By  the  time  the  children 
have  reached  the  fifth  grade,  expect  a  great  deal  of  topical  work. 
After  we  have  finished  our  study  of  the  Amazon  river,  I  expect 
a  child  to  tell  a  great  deal  about  it.  Perhaps  the  first  pupil 
called  upon  may  rise  and  say:  'The  Amazon  rises  in  the  Andes, 
flows  east,  and  empties  into  the  Atlantic  ocean.'  Then  he  may 
hesitate,  look  about  and  expect  me  to  ask  ten  or  twelve  questions 
before  I  can  pump  everything  out  of  him  that  he  knows  about 
the  Amazon.     Which  latter  action  we  are  prone  to  call  'leading 


n;(»l'i;K    UKrlTATlON    BAI.AxNCE  :J75 

out  a  (.'hild.'  The  time  comes  when  every  child  must  be  able  to 
stand  on  his  own  feet  and  tell  what  he  knows.  1  often  make 
this  remark:  'Who  can  talk  five  minutes  on  the  Amazon  river?' 
Perhaps  the  first  effort  will  give  me  a  one-minute  recitation, 
and  the  next,  two,  which  will  generally  satisfy  me.  It  isn't, 
3'ou  will  understand,  the  time  he  speaks,  but  the  fact  that  he  has 
learned  to  tell  what  is  in  his  own  mind — unburdened  his  soul, 
and  poured  out  all  he  knows  on  the  subject  under  consideration. 
At  all  times  insist  on  complete  sentences,  whether  the  lesson  be 
language,  writing,  arithmetic,  or  singing.  Thus  language  is 
correlated  with  the  other  subjects  in  the  curriculum." 

5.  Present  the  New  Lesson,  using  Leading  and  Subsidiary 
Questions,  drawing  out  first  the  personal  contributions  of  the 
Pupils'  own  study  and  research,  rather  than  contributing  your 
own  investigation.  Use  Illustrations  to  clarify  their  misunder- 
standings; question  further  to  make  sure  of  their  full  compre- 
hension; have  a  clear,  perspicuous  outline  or  skeleton,  which 
will  bind  the  parts  of  the  Lesson  clearly  and  coherently  to- 
gether; secure  frequent  subsidiary  Reviews  each  few  minutes, 
gathering  together  loose,  disjointed  ends;  rouse  animated  Class 
Discussions  on  live  topics,  but  do  not  let  them  lead  off  from  the 
main  subject  nor  consume  undue  proportion  of  time  to  the 
neglect  of  the  general  subject;  fix  the  ncw^  Ideas  firmly  in  Mem- 
ory by  Review,  by  Repetition  (both  from  the  children  and  by 
yourself)  ;  hang  them  on  the  pegs  of  some  vivid  Illustration 
(story,  picture,  object)  ;  seek  to  obtain  practical  Doing  during 
the  week  of  the  truths  and  principles  developed,  as  well  as  a  Re- 
port on  the  Doing-side  of  the  former  lessons;  avoid  Fatigue, 
watching  closely  to  see  when  Interest  commences  to  flag,  and  then 
changing  the  mode  of  Presentation  or  perchance  the  Topic ;  and 
finally  bind  the  whole  Lesson  together  by  a  rapid  Review  of  all 
the  Points  made,  and  Application  of  them  in  general,  though  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  not  every  lesson  need  necessarily  have  a 
"moral"  stated.  Very  often  the  stating  of  an  obvious  moral 
spoils  the  entire  point  of  it,  and  irritates  the  pupils  who  are  not 
stupid. 
Review  Steps. 

Three  progressive  steps  are  involved  in  the  reviewing  of  a 
lesson :  a  repetition  of  it,  a  second  view  or  viewing  again  of  it, 


."570  RELiraors  edication 

and  a  new  view  of  it.  Tlie  repetition  of  il  may  be,  to  a  certain 
extent,  meelianical.  The  second  view  of  it,  or  a  viewing  again 
of  it,  may  conipreliend  simply  those  elements  which  were  recog- 
nized in  the  first  view  or  original  learning  of  the  lesson.  This 
is  valuable.  The  new  view  of  it,  however,  seeing  it  in  new  as- 
pects and  relations,  is  by  far  the  most  important  phase  of  review- 
ing. 

Gregory  says  that  the  best  teachers  give  about  one-third  of 
each  lesson  hour  to  reviews.  Another  has  said  that  if  one-half 
the  teaching  time  were  thus  to  be  spent  there  would  be  a  gain. 

The  review  is  pre-eminently  the  student's  exercise.  Here, 
above  all  other  places,  the  lesson  should  not  degenerate  into  a 
lecture  by  the  teacher. 

The  reviews  should  be  prepared  by  the  teachers  and  stu- 
dents as  carefully  as  the  original  lesson.  Of  the  methods  of 
conducting  the  lesson  in  the  class-room  there  arc  four  that  should 
have  special  aitcntion.  They  may  be  designated  roughly  as  the 
lecture,  the  seminar,  the  recitation  or  topic,  and  the  question  or 
conversational  method. 

The  lecture  method.  By  this  method  the  teacher  proceeds 
with  an  orderly  and,  for  the  most  part,  uninterrupted  presenta- 
tion of  the  thought  of  the  lesson.  This  method  calls  for  little  or 
no  preparation  in  advance  by  the  student. 

The  seminar  method.  By  this  method  the  meml)ers  of  the 
class  are  assigned  topics  in  the  line  of  which  they  make  original 
investigations  and  report  their  findings  to  the  class,  instead  of 
being  called  upon  to  make  recitations  from  specified  portions  of 
books.  It  is  almost  needless  to  add  that  this  method  used  ex- 
clusively is  only  suited  to  more  mature  students  and  those  with 
trained  minds,  although  with  older  boys  and  young  men  it  is 
possible  to  make  such  original  investigation  an  incidental  fea- 
ture of  class  work. 

The  recitation  or  topic  method.  By  this  method  the  student 
is  expected  to  prepare  stated  lessons  from  a  text  book  and  to 
present  what  he  has  learned  by  topics  as  they  are  called  for  by 
the  teacher. 

The  Question  or  Conversational  method.  By  this  method, 
after  careful  preparation  by  the  teacher  and  student,  the  former 
elicits  the  knowledge  that  the  student  has  of  the  subject  in  as 


J'KOI'KII    lliaiJATlU-N    J5ALA^'CE  377 

orderly  ;i  fasliion  as  possible  by  a  scries  of  questions,  often  re- 
sulting ill  tJK'  ])lay  of  conversation  between  teacher  and  student. 

ill  (iregory's  Skvex  Laws  of  Teaching,  it  says:  "It  is 
only  ilu'  unskilful  and  self-seeking  teacher  who  prefers  to  hear 
his  own  voice  in  endless  talk,  rather  than  watch  the  working 
of  his  pupils'  thoughts. 

"The  chief  and  almost  constant  violation  of  tliis  law  of 
teaching  is  the  alUinpl  to  force  lessons  into  the  pupil's  mind 
by  simply  telling.  T  have  told  you  ten  times,  and  yet  you  don't 
know!'  exclaimed  a  teacher  of  this  sort." 

Balancing   Recitation  with   Instruction. 

I)j-.  lloads  has  an  entire  chapter  dealing  with  this  subject, 
a  c()nii)arison  that  few  teachers  stop  to  think  of.  The  mention 
of  it.  therefore,  will  be  of  value.  He  says,  rightly,  that  under  our 
present  iiuine  system  we  have  almost  all  the  time  given  to  In- 
struction, with  little  or  no  Home  Study  and  therefore  small 
amount  of  Recitation ;  while  in  the  Day  School  this  condition  is 
precisely  reversed.  Therefore  the  Sunday  School  has  become 
too  far  a  pouring-in  process.  This  is  working  to  the  manifest 
disparagement  of  the  Sunday  School,  which  is  despised  in  the 
eyes  of  the  bright  Public  Scliool  child. 

Therefore,  wisely  balance  Instruction  with  Eecitation.  De- 
mand, expect,  and  enforce  Home  Study.  Secure  definite  Recita- 
tion of  the  assigned  task.  See  that  the  reproduction  and  eluci- 
dation of  the  set  stint  of  Home  Work  be  not  displaced  by  the 
needfnl  Class  Discussion. 

How  to  Secure  Balance. 

1.  Assign  for  definite  Home  Study  all  within  the  range  of 
the  children's  time,  books,  comprehension.  Exercise  and  culti- 
vate their  o\\  ii  mental  powers.  Let  them  "pick  their  own  brains, 
before  coming  to  pick  yours." 

2.  Have  each  scholar  nuike  particular  note  of  difficulties, 
inquiries,  doubts,  questions,  etc..  he  finds  arising,  and  which  he 
himself  cannot  meet.  If  he  come  across  a  specially  new  and  il- 
luminating discovery,  let  him  contribute  it  to  the  class. 

3.  Instruction,  new  knowledge,  should  be  the  bait  to  the 
class,  the  prize  that  brings  them  there.  There  are,  if  the  teacher 
be  enthusiastic,  "seekers  after  Truth,"  and  the  teacher  knows 


378  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

more  than  the  pupils.  Thus  the  little  "philosophers"  will  seek 
the  source  of  Truth. 

Dr.  Ilervey  gives  these  Tests  of  Effective  Teaching:  "Is  it 
objective?  (Appeal  to  sense.)  Does  it  lead  to  'putting  your- 
self in  his  place'?  (Appeal  to  imagination.)  Does  it  exercise 
the  power  to  select  essentials,  call  things  by  their  right  names? 
(Appeal  to  thought.)  Does  it  broaden  and  deepen  interest? 
Does  it  lead  to  clear  and  true  conception  of  what  to  do,  and 
quicken  the  impulse  and  the  will  to  do  it?  Does  it  arouse  ideals 
and  social  emotion  ?" 

In  Testing  the  Eesults  of  Teaching,  Professor  Thorndike  re- 
marks that:  "No  matter  how  carefully  one  tries  to  follow  the 
right  principles  of  teaching,  no  matter  how  ingeniously  one 
selects  and  adroitly  one  arranges  stimuli,  it  is  advisable  to  test 
the  result  of  one's  efforts — to  make  sure  that  the  knowledge  or 
power  or  tendency  expected  has  really  been  acquired.  Just  as 
the  scientist,  though  he  has  made  his  facts  as  accurate  and  his 
argument  as  logical  as  he  can,  still  remains  unsatisfied  until  he 
verifies  his  conclusion  by  testing  it  with  new  facts,  so  the  teacher, 
after  planning  and  executing  a  piece  of  work  as  well  as  he  can, 
nmst  'verify'  his  teaching  by  direct  tests  of  its  results  and  must 
consider  uncertain  any  result  that  he  cannot  thus  verify.  The 
principle  of  effective  teaching  is  indeed  easy,  but  its  successful, 
concrete  application  requires  both  a  high  degree  of  capacity  for 
insight  into  the  facts  of  child-life  and  thorough  training.  The 
principle  is  simply :  To  know  whether  anyone  has  a  given  mental 
state,  see  if  he  can  use  it;  to  know  whether  anyone  will  make 
a  given  response  to  a  certain  situation,  put  him  in  the  situation 
arranged  so  that  that  response  and  that  response  alone  will  pro- 
duce a  certain  result,  and  see  if  that  result  is  produced.  The 
test  for  both  mental  states  and  mental  connections  is  appropriate 
action." 

Dr.  Dewey  says  in  his  School  and  Society:  "I  should 
like  at  this  point  to  refer  to  the  recitation.  We  all  know  what 
it  has  been — a  place  where  the  child  shows  off  to  the  teacher  and 
the  other  children  the  amount  of  information  he  has  succeeded  in 
assimilating  from  the  text-book.  From  this  other  standpoint, 
the  recitation  becomes  pre-eminently  a  social  meeting  place;  it 
is  to  the  school  what  the  spontaneous  conversation  is  at  home, 


PROPER    RECITATION    BALANCE  379 

excepting  that  it  is  more  organized,  following  definite  lines. 
The  recitation  becomes  the  social  clearing-house,  where  experi- 
ence and  ideas  arc  exchanged  and  subjected  to  criticism,  where 
misconceptions  are  corrected,  and  new  lines  of  thought  and  in- 
quiry are  set  up." 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "balancing  Recitation  and  Instruction"?    Wherein 

do  they  dilFcr? 

2.  What   lias   been   the  general   method   in   Sunday    School   Teaching? 

Wliich  part  has  prevailed  in  the  past?    Which  one  predominates 
in  your  School  now?    Is  there  an  "equipoise"? 

3.  What  changes  would  you  see  possible  in  your  own  present  methods? 

Why  ? 

4.  What  particularly   good   points   do   you   note   in   Christ's   Method? 

(Study  Gospels.) 

5.  WHiat  "Educational  Laws"  did  He  make  use  of? 

6.  W^hat  several   Methods  of  Instruction   are   in  vogiie,   and   to   what 

Type  of  Pupil  and  what  Age  is  each  adapted? 


PART  VII. 

The  School  and  Its  Organization 

The   Where  of  Teaching 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE   SCOPE   OF  THE   SUNDAY   SCHOOL. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

•The  Chircuman's  Manual.     Butler.     Index. 

TiiK  SiNDAY  SruooL.     Moore,     p.  18. 

Cla.ss  Tkaciiincj;  The  Foundations  of  Education.     Seeley.    pp.  240-245. 

*TiiE  HuY   I'ltuitLEM.     Forbush.     p.  2(. 

♦The  I'ltiNciTLEs  op  Education.     S.  8.  Commission. 

•The  Sunday  School  Outlook.     8.  8.  Commission. 

pRiNcii'LEs  AND  IDEALS  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL.     University  of  Chicago. 

The  Model  Sunday  School.     Boynton. 

The  RiitLE  School.     McKinney. 

The  Modern  Sunday  School.     Cope.     Inde.x. 

How  to  Conduct  a  Sunday  School.     Lawrence.     Index. 

What  the  Sunday  School  Is  and  Is  Not. 

Let  us  realize  that  this  section  is  of  interest  to  the  individual 
teacher,  and  not  alone  to  the  Clergy  and  Superintendent.  It  is 
the  ideals  of  the  conihined  individual  teachers  (very  frequently 
of  afi  individual  teacher  who  "will  not  down";  but  keeps  on 
pusliing),  which  set  the  tone  of  the  School,  and,  as  in  demo- 
cratic politics,  affect  the  legislation  and  system  of  the  School. 
Many  a  poor  School  has  been  reformed  by  a  few  inspiring  teach- 
ers. 

(a)  What  the  Sunday  School  Is.  Theoretically,  the  Day 
School  should  supply  an  all-round  education,  covering  the  five 
lines  of  a  fully-educated  man,  as  laid  down  in  Chapter  I.  In 
Germany  it  does  this.  Dr.  Garmo,  in  his  Lecture  on  The  Prin- 
ciples OF  Religious  Education,  and  Professor  Seeley  in  the 
last  chapter  of  his  book  already  cited,  deal  fully  with  this  point. 
England  has  a  pretty  thorough  system  in  her  Common  Schools. 
France  omits  it  altogether;  but  gives  Thursday  as  a  free-day,  a 
holiday  (holy-day,  in  the  right  sense  of  the  term),  for  private 
sectarian   or  confessional   instruction,   in   connection  with  the 


384  lli:iJG10LS    EDLCATION 

Churches.  'J'hc  TniUMl  Stales,  ever  since  Uie  final  ruling  of  the 
Wisconsin  Court,  has  exchuled  definite  religious  teaching  from 
the  (yomnion  Schools,  in  some  States,  however,  permitting  the 
reading  of  tlie  Bihle  without  comment.  The  only  place  at  pres- 
ent (unless  the  newly-formed  Keligious  Education  Association  is 
able  to  accomplish  wonders  in  the  restoration  of  religious  edu- 
cation to  the  Day  Schools)  where  such  part  of  man's  educational 
equipment  can  be  secured  is  the  Sunday  School.  The  Sunday 
School,  first  and  foremost,  then,  is  to  be  a  school  in  character, 
that  is,  its  primary  object  is  to  be  instruction — religious  edu- 
cation. Therefore  we  set  a  three-fold,  definite,  specific  Aim  or 
Object  for  the  Sunday  School.  L  To  give  a  general  Religious 
Education,  covering  a  wide  field  of  Subject-matter.  2.  It  may 
inculcate  sound  ethics  and  im])art  the  particular  Doctrinal  Ma- 
terial, which  belongs  to  the  particular  inter])retation  of  the  Bible, 
which  it  represents.  3.  It  should  bring  the  children  to  Christ, 
that  is  to  the  fullest  privileges  and  responsibilities  of  the  Church, 
to  enjoyment  of  her  Worship,  to  appreciation  of  her  Sacraments, 
to  the  definite  assumption  of  individual  burdens  and  responsibil- 
ities of  Church  Work. 

(h)  What  ike  Siindaij  ScJiool  is  A^ot.  1.  It  is  not  the 
Children's  Church.  It  can  never  and  should  never  take  the  place 
of  Public  Worship,  "the  assembling  of  ourselves  together."  The 
element  of  Worship  should  be  cut  down  to  the  lowest  consistent 
place.  Let  the  Children  consider  themselves  a  part  of  the  gen- 
eral congregation,  coming  with  tlieir  families  to  the  united  wor- 
ship of  the  Lord's  Day  and  the  Daily  Services,  taking  their  spec- 
ial part,  and  being  trained  just  as  definitely  in  the  habit  of 
Public  Worship  as  in  the  habit  of  truthfulness  or  politeness. 
In  many  churches  it  becomes  imperative,  from  circumstances, 
either  in  the  homes  or  in  the  nature  of  the  Services,  to  provide  a 
Children's  Service.  The  training  in  the  entire,  unmutilated  Ser- 
vice is  the  ideal  thing.  Unfortunately,  we  do  not  live  in  an  ideal 
age.  At  any  rate,  the  School  is  not  the  Children's  Service,  and 
is  not  for  Worship. 

2.  It  is  not  a  "Revival  Service."  There  is  little  danger, 
however,  of  that  element  in  our  general  Sunday  School.  The 
danger  is  that  of  the  other  extreme:  coldness,  formalism,  lack  of 
heart,  head  work  rather  than  heart  work. 


THE  SCOPE  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  :}85 

3.  It  is  not  a  combination  of  Social  Clubs.  Certainly,  the 
"group  feeling''  is  to  be  wisely  made  use  of;  and  high  success 
will  attend  the  formation  of  each  class  into  a  "Club"  or  a  Named- 
Class  (as  those  bearing  particular  mottoes  or  named  after  Mis- 
sionary Heroes,  etc.),  at  the  "set"  or  "gang"  age,  in  later  child- 
hood and  early  adolescence;  but  this  is  not  to  make  the  work  of 
the  Class  in  Keligious  Education  of  the  nature  of  a  social  gath- 
ering, for  gossip,  baseball  talk,  dress-conversation,  reading  story- 
books, or  telling  of  jokes.  The  day  school  does  not  descend  to 
trifles  that  occupy  the  attention  of  too  many  Sunday  School 
Classes. 

4.  It  is  not  a  Free-nursery,  where  irritated,  selfish  parents 
may  send  their  children  to  be  rid  of  them.  There  have  been 
plenty  of  instances  of  children  going  to  two  Sunday  Schools  a 
day,  each  of  a  different  religious  profession. 

5.  Lastly,  the  Sunday  School  is  not  a  Prize  Lottery.  Very, 
very  many  parents  consider  it  such,  however,  though  they  would 
not  confess  it  to  themselves.  They  plan  very  carefully  what  "it 
will  pay  them."  Often  it  is  said :  "I  will  send  my  child  to  your 
school,  because  it  did  not  get  a  nice  present  at  Christmas  where 
it  went  last  year."  The  crowded  schools  immediately  preceding 
Christmas  and  the  dropping  off  after  that  present-giving  season 
has  passed  is  proverbial.  The  schools  fill  up  again  a  month 
before  the  Excursion,  the  trips  to  the  Fresh  Air  Homes,  the  dis- 
tribution of  Coal,  Clothing,  etc.  Many  poor  families  develop  a 
most  marvellous  concern  for  religion  and  the  salvation  of  their 
children  by  Baptism  and  Sunday  School,  when  they  learn  that 
the  Church  pays  rents,  supplies  coal  and  food,  and  fits  them  out 
in  clothing.  This  idea  should  be  forever  and  entirely  eliminated 
from  the  Sunday  School.  Let  the  faithfulness  and  general  claim 
of  the  family  determine  relief,  with  due  regard  to  the  fact  that 
"the  household  of  faith"  have  prior  claim  (prior  only)  to  others 
outside  the  pale  of  the  membership  of  that  Church.  Let  the 
token  at  the  Birthday  of  the  Christ-Child  be  but  a  token,  not  of 
munificence  enough  to  create  a  scramble.  It  is  all  very  well  to 
"make  the  Sunday  School  attractive,"  to  use  bait  to  catch  fish 
for  Christ;  but  beware  lest  we  make  Christ  and  His  religion  to 
be  despised. 


386  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

The  Possibilities  of  the  Sunday  School. 

Spite  of  all  that  has  been  said  here,  the  Possibilities  of  the 
Sunday  School  are  enornioiis.  It  should  not  be  given  up  in  de- 
spair, and  disbanded,  as  some  few  discouraged  Clergy  have  done. 
It  has  wide  spheres  of  Influence,  if  properly  organized  and  con- 
ducted. It  reaches — 1,  the  Child  in  School;  3,  the  Child  in 
Church ;  3,  the  Home  Child ;  4,  the  Home  Circle.  It  commences 
at  the  Kindergarten  Age  in  the  Font  or  Baptismal  Koll,  goes  on 
to  children  of  Primary  Age,  of  Childhood,  of  Youth,  of  Adult 
Life;  it  goes  beyond  this  to  the  Home  Department,  the  "Shut- 
in"  (or  better,  the  Shut-out)  Child,  the  Parent,  the  busy  Worker, 
absent  in  Sunday  Toil.  To  all  these  classes  it  carries  at  least 
some  thought  of  God,  of  Duty,  of  Eeligion.  Much  of  what  the 
Possibilities  may  eventuate  depends  upon  the  Clergy,  the  Super- 
intendent, the  Organization.  It  is  really  the  Organization  car- 
ried on  by  "the  man  behind  the  gun,"  that  converts  the  possi- 
bility into  probability,  and  actuates  the  ideal  into  a  fact. 

The  Organization. 

To  a  slight  extent  this  must  differ,  as  between  a  large  city, 
a  small,  fashionable  city,  and  a  country  school.  Numbers  will 
necessarily  afl^ect  it.  Still  the  same  general  plan  may  be  out- 
lined for  all;  local  conditions  only  influencing  minor  details. 
First,  let  it  be  noted  that  the  same  business-like  Order,  System, 
Regularity,  Regard  for  Rules  once  made.  Enforcement  of  Dis- 
cipline, Attention  to  Details,  careful  Planning  and  efficient  Over- 
sight, zealous  Interest  and  painstaking  Devotion  to  Duty  and 
Obligations  should  characterize  even  the  smallest  schools,  as  are 
shown  in  any  proper  business  house.  Thus  a  good,  conscientious 
business  man  makes  the  most  ideally  capable  Superintendent. 

A  certain  wealthy  business  man  in  a  large  city  in  Central 
New  York  was  recently  placed  in  charge  of  a  run-down  Sunday 
School  by  a  wise  Rector.  In  two  months  the  School  went  up 
from  150  to  400,  and  is  growing.  The  same  thought  and  care 
was  given  to  it,  especially  to  "the  business-end"  of  it,  that  the 
man  put  into  his  business.  The  man  at  the  gun  made  that 
School.     The  rector  never  could  have  done  it. 

Few  of  the  Clergy  are  efficient  business  men,  and  it  is  no 
discredit  to  them  to  acknowledge  it.     It  is  not  their  forte,  nor 


THE  SCOPE  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  387 

their  training.  I^ct  them  do  what  is  a  plain  duty,  and  put  a 
business  man  at  the  helm,  but  for  business  purposes  only.  Loyal, 
true-hearted,  recognizing  his  function  and  obligations  clearly 
and  distinctly  at  the  outset,  which  concern  secular  not  spiritual 
matters  (the  Minister  is  responsible  for  all  educational  features, 
all  teaching,  lessons,  etc.),  given  a  free  hand,  under  loyal  consul- 
tation with  the  Minister,  in  what  is  clearly  the  Superintend- 
ent's work,  with  responsibility,  to  make  things  run,  bravely  laid 
upon  his  shoulders,  tliis  consecrated  business  man  will  in  almost 
every  instance  prove  a  boon  and  a  blessing. 

In  some  rare  instances,  however,  a  trained  Common  School 
Educator,  with  marked  business  and  organizing  ability,  such  as  a 
Public  School  Superintendent,  may  be  secured.  In  such  an 
event,  he  will  be,  by  all  odds,  the  ideal.  Usually  a  "business- 
man" is  all  we  may  dare  hope  for,  using  the  "Grading  Teacher" 
for  pedagogical  guidance.  We  deal  again  with  this  matter  under 
"the  Superintendent." 

The  Organization  will  deal  with  the  following  details: 
The  School  Year. 

In  the  majority  of  schools,  division  into  Long  and  Short 
Terms  or  Sessions  will  be  most  suitable,  and  accord  best  with 
many  systems  of  Source  Lessons  that  provide  Long  and  Short 
Courses.  The  Long  Course  could  commence  early  in  the 
Autumn,  September  or  October,  as  may  be,  and  run  through 
until  the  end  of  May  or  June,  when,  in  most  schools,  the  attend- 
ance of  both  teachers  and  scholars  diminishes.  The  Short  Course 
would  be  the  Summer  Session,  conducted,  in  contrast  with  the 
Long  Course,  with  few  teachers  and  larger  classes,  or  teachers 
perhaps  as  helpers,  and  lecturing  and  teaching  Masters  for  each 
room.  The  Long  Course  will  probably  run  from  25  to  40  Les- 
sons; the  Short  one  from  8  to  15  Lessons. 

Special  Days,  etc. 

In  general,  there  are  likely  to  occur  the  following  Special 
Days  and  Occasions:  "Sunday  School  Day,"  where  the  facts 
bearing  on  Sunday  Schools  are  considered,  usually  from  the  pul- 
pit in  the  Church  Service ;  Christmas  Festival ;  Missionary  Day, 
usually  of  the  Junior  Auxiliary;  Easter  Celebration;  examina- 
tion Days;  and  Commencement  Day.     On  these  occasions  the 


388  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

usual  Lesson  is  laid  aside  and  a  special  Lesson  substituted.  The 
School  System  should  take  due  account  of  the  advent  of  such 
days,  providing  for  them  in  mapping  out  the  Course.  Special 
Lessons  should  be  carefully  prepared,  on  the  same  general  plan 
as  the  others  in  the  system. 

Examination  Days. 

Examination  Days  should  be  compulsory,  just  as  in  Day 
School,  and  Reports  sent  home  to  the  parents.  Children  should 
be  promoted  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  results,  and  no 
favoritism  should  be  shown.  If  good  reason  be  shown  for  fail- 
ure to  pass,  the  child  might  be  "conditioned,"  and  permitted  to 
go  on,  with  that  subject  as  an  extra  to  be  passed  off  later ;  and 
this  passing  should  be  adhered  to  most  emphatically.  If  a 
scholar  be  ready  to  pass  off  a  condition,  that  examination  could 
be  held  at  any  time,  and  not  on  Examination  Days.  In  schools 
with  a  Graded  Curriculum,  it  will  be  found,  as  each  class  is 
thus  able  to  go  on  at  its  own  proper  rate  of  study,  classes  will 
complete  a  Course  ahead  of  Examination  Day.  It  should  then 
have  a  Special  Examination,  as  in  Common  School  Work.  Cate- 
chism Examinations  may  be  held  at  any  time,  the  pupil  reciting 
first  to  the  teacher  privately,  and  then  to  the  Examining  Com- 
mittee. The  Written  Examinations  should  be  strict  and  impar- 
tial. Fifteen  Questions  are  a  good  number  to  assign,  on  printed 
or  hektographcd  sheets,  and  the  choice  of  any  ten  questions  al- 
lowed. Care  should  be  had  to  remove  all  temptations  to  cheating, 
for  even  in  Sunday  School  bad  examples  are  contagious.  Teach- 
ers, even,  are  careless  about  giving  help.  High  moral  aims 
should  be  fostered. 

Commencement  Day. 

Yes,  there  should  be  a  Commencement  Day,  and  it  is  not 
"a  foolish  fad."  Creditable,  faithful  work  everywhere,  not  least 
in  Religious  Education,  is  worthy  of  due  recognition.  "Honor 
to  whom  honor  is  due."  Give  a  proper  recognition,  Certificate 
or  Diploma,  for  the  Examination  passed;  a  Certificate  usually 
for  Term  or  Annual  Examinations;  a  Diploma  for  the  Comple- 
tion of  the  High  School  Course.  A  good  "passing  grade"  should 
be  expected,  perhaps  not  quite  so  high  as  Day  School,  which 
usually  demands  70  per  cent.    Probably  GO  per  cent,  in  Sunday 


THE  SCOPE  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  389 

School  would  bo  the  best  we  should  anticipate  for  several  years 
yet.  The  Summer  Special  Session  might  have  a  Special  Exami- 
nation, with  Certificates,  not  counting  in  the  regular  system  for 
Diploma,  save  that  the  holding  of  a  certain  number  of  Summer 
Certificates  would  confer  additional  "honors"  on  the  final  gradu- 
ation, as  "Cum  Laude"  or  "Cum  summa  laude"  on  the  Diploma. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  improper   qualities  have  been   emphasized  in  your   Sunday 

School ? 

2.  Give  examples  of  harm  wrought  by  such  method. 

3.  What  remedies  of  practical  application  can  you  suggest? 

4.  If  your  school  is  not  doing  its  best  work,  what  is  your  duty?    Re- 

member that  "the  good  is  the  great  enemy  of  the  best."    "To  him 
that  knoweth  to  do  good,  and  docth  it  not,  to  him  it  is  sin." 

5.  Map  out  a  suggested  and  practical  plan  of  Organization  for  your 

Sunday  School. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE  PLAN   OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

The  Boy  Problem.    Forhush. 

•The  Model  School.     Boynton. 

The  Bible  School.  McKinney. 

The  Teacher,  the  Child,  and  the  Book.     Schauffler. 

•The  Modern  Sunday  School.     Vincent. 

The  Home  Department.     Hazard. 

Pbinciplbs  and  Ideals  of  the  Sunday  School.     Burton. 

The  Time  of  the  Sunday  School. 

We  have  indicated  that  physically  the  morning,  within  an 
hour  or  so  after  breakfast,  is  the  best  time  for  mental  work. 
Therefore  a  Morning  Session  of  the  Sunday  School  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  an  Afternoon  one.  In  the  country  districts,  with  late 
breakfasts  and  home  work,  the  time  is  usually  afternoon.  Often 
the  Services  interfere  with  a  morning  session. 

Whatever  the  time,  the  Session  must  be  at  least  one  full 
hour  in  length,  no  less.  This  is  the  usual  rule,  though  of  course 
subject  to  local  conditions.  It  should  be  carefully  ordered  and 
systematized,  and  this  order  strictly  and  unflinchingly  adhered 
to.  This  is  the  prime  duty  of  the  Superintendent.  It  is  not 
his  place  to  wander  around  shaking  hands  with  the  teachers,  and 
"getting  acquainted."  The  Sunday  School  is  not  the  place  for 
that.  He  has  no  right  to  deprive  the  children  of  their  teacher 
for  an  extra  five  minutes,  even  to  discuss  the  weather.  Such 
interruptions  are  a  sort  of  malfeasance  in  of!ice.  Hence  long 
Addresses  and  "Talks"  from  the  desk,  painfully  tedious  notices, 
all  these  are  to  be  dispensed  with  per  se. 

Divide  the  hour  up  as  follows :  Commence  sharp  on  the 
stroke  of  the  hour  with  the  bell.  The  school  should  open 
promptly  no  matter  if  only  one-quarter  of  the  members  be  pres- 
ent, and  it  should  never  drag  out  even  five  minutes  beyond  the 


THE  PLAN  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  391 

time  set  as  closing  time.  An  excellent  Visual  Impression  (a  real- 
izing sense  of  something  wrong)  is  created  by  the  "I  am  Late" 
card,  turned  from  "I  am  on  Time"  at  the  opening  hymn.  The  en- 
tire Opening  Service  may  consume  five  minutes,  a  Hymn,  Creed, 
Lord's  Prayer,  and  Collects,  for  the  Sunday  School  is  essentially 
a  school.  Then  forty-five  minutes  clear  (no  interruptions  of 
any  kind  from  Superintendent,  Librarians,  Secretaries,  or  Treas- 
urer) for  the  teaching  of  the  Lesson.  If  there  has  to  be  Cate- 
chising, which  under  a  Graded  System  must  confine  itself  to 
Catechism,  Doctrine,  and  to  General  Questions  on  Bible  History 
and  Church  Year  and  Prayer  Book,  then  let  thirty  minutes  be 
assigned  for  the  lesson  and  fifteen  for  the  catechising.  Half  an 
hour  is  too  brief  a  time  for  ill-trained  teachers,  who  do  not  sys- 
tematize their  work,  to  accomplish  much.  They  are  too  diffuse 
and  scattered.  Trained  Public  School  Teachers  find  it  almost 
too  short  a  period.  There  will  now  be  remaining  fifteen  minutes 
of  the  hour.  The  Secretaries  have  quietly,  without  interruption, 
distributed  the  Record  Cards  or  Books  during  the  preceding 
period.  The  Librarian  has  taken  up  the  returned  books,  also 
without  interrupting,  and  has  the  outgoing  ones  ready  at  hand. 
For  ten  minutes  now  the  Teachers  mark  the  classes  in  whatever 
points  are  to  be  recorded;  the  Librarians  give  out  their  books; 
the  Treasurer  takes  up  his  offerings ;  the  Class  Marks  are  left  in 
the  class  forms  for  Collection  after  school ;  forms  for  notification 
of  illness  or  of  absentees  are  filled  out,  and  left  there  also  by 
teachers,  as  well  as  reports  in  writing  of  the  calls  on  scholars  in 
the  Home  Visiting  done  by  each  teacher  on  his  or  her  class. 
All  this  need  not  take  more  than  the  allowed  ten  minutes.  This 
leaves  a  last  five  minutes  for  the  Announcements  of  the  Superin- 
tendent or  Minister,  for  the  Closing  Hymn,  and  Prayers.  This 
is  system  and  order,  the  only  respectable  way  of  conducting  a 
school.  Even  with  perchance  a  poor  or  indifferent  system  of 
lessons,  it  must  bring  tolerably  satisfying  results. 

The  Place  of  the  Sunday  School!  When  shall  we  ever  learn 
to  build  with  an  eye  to  God's  best  service?  How  almost  crimi- 
nally short  sighted  we  all  are !  The  Sunday  School,  the  most 
potent  agency,  at  least  in  its  possibilities,  in  the  whole  land  for 
righteousness  of  life  and  uprightness  of  character,  is  yet  the  last 
thought  of  in  its  housing.    We  erect  well-planned  theatres,  why 


392  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

not  Sunday  Schools?  Even  with  our  growing  assortment  of 
Parish  BuildingS;,  or  enormous  Institutional  Pkmts  in  every 
large  city,  there  are  scarcely  ten  respectable  Sunday  School 
Buildings,  among  all  the  churches  of  this  land,  with  all  bodies 
of  Christians  considered.  Most  of  these  ten  are  located  within  a 
dozen  miles  of  New  York  City.  One  large  church  near  New 
York,  with  a  modern  building,  supposed  to  be  model  in  every 
way,  remembered  that  it  possessed  a  Sunday  School  after  the 
building  was  completed,  and  as  a  consequence  more  than  1,000 
children  are  seated  in  one  room.  Why  not  secure  for  the  chil- 
dren just  as^suitablc,  well-equipped  school  rooms  as  we  possibly 
can?  At  least  let  them  come  in,  in  their  rightful  place,  in  the 
erection  of  all  Parish  Buildings.  A  special  Book  on  the  Erec- 
tion and  Equipment  of  Proper  Sunday  School  Buildings,  large 
and  small,  and  the  alteration  of  existing  ones  is  now  being  pub- 
lished by  the  author  and  a  prominent  architect.  It  is  a  study 
by  itself  and  cannot  well  be  treated  here. 

Music  in  the  Sunday  School. 

Suitable  hymns  for  children  under  eleven  are,  according  to 
the  Episcopal  Hymnal:  11,  49,  58,  65,  112,  254,  412,  452,  515, 
51G,  532,  534,  538,  540,  544,  550,  552,  560,  562,  563,  567,  578. 
For  the  older  children:  110,  143,  261,  319,  418,  503,  505,  506, 
507,  509,  521,  522,  542,  556,  558,  568,  570,  573,  577,  640,  656, 
672.  For  doctrine  the  following  are  valuable:  90,  91,  149,  152, 
375,  379,  383,  387,  388,  463,  591,  537. 

Children's  Church  is  sometimes  condemned  simply  because 
some  ministers,  following  denominational  example,  have  made 
it  a  substitute  for  the  services  of  the  Church.  Rightly  con- 
ducted, it  educates  the  child  to  take  his  place  in  the  congrega- 
tion. As  the  larger  number  of  schools  are  held  immediately 
after  Morning  Prayer,  perhaps  the  best  time  for  it  is  on  the 
afternoon  of  the  first  Sunday  in  the  month,  when  in  most  par- 
ishes there  is  noonday  Celebration. 
Departments. 

Even  in  the  smallest  school  there  should  be  Departments. 
In  the  largest  the  same  kinds  only  perhaps  several  divisions  of 
a  department.    The  Departments  correspond  with  the  Grading. 

(a)   The  Font  or  Baptismal  Roll,  in  which  are  gathered 


TUK  PLAN  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  393 

all  children  who  arc  properly  termed  'Tjabies."  Just  as  we 
recofjiiize  that  Baptism  makes  each  child  a  "member  of  Christ's 
Flock/'  so  the  same  act  enrolls  it  as  a  future  member  of  the 
Sunday  School.  We  mi^dit  give  the  parents  its  Font  or  Baptis- 
mal Certificate.  Each  Christian  is  ipso  facto  a  member  of  our 
great  Missionary  Society.  So  this  Roll  fills  a  place,  a  real  place, 
in  the  regime  of  a  good  School.  Study  up  about  it,  and  USE  it. 
(h)   The  Kindergarten,  to  five  or  six. 

(c)  The  Primary,  to  Third  Grade  Day  School. 

In  small  schools  these  two  may  be  combined,  though  they 
ought  not  to  be,  for  there  is  a  significant  distinction  arising  at 
the  age  of  six.  Not  quite  the  same  methods  should  be  pursued 
in  each,  either.  More  of  the  story-telling  in  the  latter  age; 
more  of  Kindergarten  and  Models  in  the  former.  Activity  in 
both  of  them  should  be  prominent.  Blackboard  and  Picture 
Illustration ;  Sand  table,  if  rightly  used ;  the  Concrete  and  never 
the  Abstract;  Doing  in  everything  so  far  as  may  be;  Motion 
Songs  and  Verses ;  bright  Coloration  and  catchy  simple  Music ; 
Hymns  with  sympathetic  teaching  in  them — all  these  consti- 
tute some  of  the  hints  for  the  Ages  below  nine  or  ten,  that  is, 
below  the  possibility  of  reading. 

(d)  The  Main  or  Grammar,  or  Intermediate  School. 
Eemember  that  the  small  child  has  no  conception  of  time 

or  space,  the  one  because  of  his  total  want  of  long  time  experi- 
ences, the  other  because  it  is  abstraction.  We  dare  not  place  a 
map  before  a  child  in  Day  School  under  the  age  of  ten;  nor 
a  globe  under  the  age  of  nine.  Thus  do  not  use  either  before 
these  ages  in  Sunday  School.  To  say  a  child  can  name  and 
point  out  places  on  a  map  earlier  means  naught.  It  is  rote, 
parrot  work.  Yet  maps,  charts,  and  globes  are  required.  You 
cannot  impart  Bible  History  at  all  understandingly  without 
Geography,  studied  early,  at  say  the  age  of  11  or  12,  when  the 
pupils  are  having  Day  School  Geography;  and  then  continued 
systematically  throughout  all  the  Bible  Courses.  Every  separ- 
ate school  room  should  have  large  maps  fastened  on  the  walls. 

A  good  plan  is  to  purchase  a  series  of  small  maps  ($1.00 
each  in  cloth)  and  have  them,  together  with  suitable  religious 
Pictures  and  illustrative  Charts,  Chronological  Tables,  etc., 
glued  or  nailed  on  the  walls  and  shellacked,  so  that  they  will 


394  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

cleanse  readily  with  a  dampened  cloth.  Smaller  maps  are  better 
than  larger  ones,  for  the  school  can  have  more  of  them,  a  set  for 
every  room,  or  a  number  of  sets  for  large  rooms.  Scholars  will 
not  trouble  to  leave  their  forms  for  the  sake  of  looking  at  maps, 
unless  the  interest  in  Bible  Geography  is  more  than  customarily 
keen.  Each  large  School  should  certainly  possess  a  copy  of  the 
enormous  Map  of  Western  Palestine,  made  by  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund ;  as  well  as  their  Eelief  Models  of  Physical  Pal- 
estine and  of  Jerusalem.  The  Maps  should  be  of  several  kinds. 
One  is  a  collotype  Picture  Map  of  Palestine  Fund  ($1.25),  in 
colors,  on  paper,  showing  Physical  Palestine,  with  the  sites  of 
Cities.  Properly  speaking,  being  in  relief,  it  is  not  a  map,  and 
may  be  used  with  young,  very  young,  children,  where  7naps  would 
be  utterly  valueless.  Sets  of  Physical  Maps,  ten  at  least,  on  cloth, 
others  in  clay  or  papier  mache  relief;  some  on  pressed  paper 
for  class  work,  with  sets  of  Political  Maps,  are  needed  for 
walls,  and  in  booklets  for  teachers  in  class.  They  should  cover 
Early  Palestine  and  Mesopotamia,  Egypt,  the  Israelitish  Wan- 
derings, the  Land  of  the  Conquest,  the  Tribal  Divisions,  the 
Kingdom  of  Solomon,  the  Divided  Kingdom,  the  Assyrian  King- 
doms, New  Testament  Palestine,  and  the  Journeys  of  St.  Paul. 
A  last  set  should  be  small  paper  Outline  Maps,  for  the  children 
to  have  in  plenty,  for  the  insertion  of  cities  and  routes.  These 
are  part  of  the  proper  equipment  of  the  Main  School  Depart- 
ment. 

Other  things  important  are  Models  of  Bible  Objects,  Uten- 
sils of  the  Tabernacle,  Palestinian  Houses,  Eoman  Couch-table, 
etc.  They  should  not  belong  to  any  one  class,  but  be  a  part  of 
the  School  Library,  and  loaned  to  teachers  for  illustration.  There 
should  also  be  a  complete  set  of  Underwood's  Stereoscopic  Views, 
showing  not  alone  scenes  from  the  Holy  Land,  such  as  are  not 
otherwise  to  be  portrayed  or  indicated  with  clear  apperceptive- 
ness;  but  also  many  points  of  Bible  Customs,  Manners,  and  Ob- 
jects. They  are  very  cheap;  and  they,  with  the  small  ($L00) 
stereoscope,  may  be  loaned  from  class  to  class  by  the  Library. 
The  Detroit  Photographic  Co.  have  also  a  delightful  series  of 
highly  picturesque,  colored,  Palestinian  Views,  too  large  and 
costly  for  free  distribution,  which  should  be  part  of  the  outfit 
of  all  progressive  schools. 


THE  PLAN  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  395 

(e)  The  High  or  Advanced  School.  Plere  the  abstract  and 
doctrinal  is  dealt  with.  If  the  Sunday  School  did  eilicient  work, 
the  drilling  of  a  yearly  Confirmation  Class  in  the  Church's 
Teaeliings,  intellectually,  would  end.  There  would  still  very 
properly  be  Confirmation  Classes;  but  they  would  no  longer  be 
"Instructions."  They  would  be  more  of  the  nature  of  Confer- 
ences on  Applied  Doctrine;  inspiring,  zeal-enthusing,  heart 
more  than  head ;  conversion  and  earnest  life-consideration  rather 
than  "learning  the  Catechism."  The  Catechism  would  be  al- 
ready known;  the  Church's  Teachings  already  inculcated  and 
appreciated;  Churchmen  already  made  well-grounded  in  "the 
Faith  once  delivered  to  the  Saints."  This  Department  should 
be  supplied  with  the  best,  most  sympathetic,  most  earnest  teach- 
ers, those  who  comprehend  the  full  meaning,  significance,  and 
opportunity  of  the  Adolescent  Period.  Many  teachers  ruin 
children  now. 

(/)  The  Post-graduate  School.  We  should  not  free  our 
pupils  from  continuous  study,  everlasting  "seeking  after  Truth." 
Let  them  graduate  at  eighteen,  have  their  Diplomas ;  but  give  in- 
centives for  keeping  on.  Present  live  topics  for  consideration, 
under  live  teachers,  on  present-day  issues.  You  will  have  no 
dearth  of  scholars.  Look  at  Columbia  University  with  over 
1,000  crowding  in  to  attend  its  Summer  Course,  in  steaming 
New  York  weather.    Teach  well  and  hosts  will  flock  to  learn. 

Procure  teachers  from  the  Common  Schools.  Let  them  be 
men  and  women  of  renown  and  of  consecration  as  well.  This 
is  a  new  and  untried,  progressive  feature  in  the  Sunday  School. 
Do  not  be  afraid  to  risk  it. 

Especially  ought  this  Depat-tmcnt  to  train  teachers.  Give 
one  entire  Course  to  it.  Train  on  all  such  topics  as  this  book 
covers,  perhaps  with  less  detail;  but  sufficient  for  a  beginning 
teacher.  This  Course  should  be  separate  from  the  general 
Teachers'  Training  Class  for  brushing  up  ill-equipped  teachers, 
already  in  service  on  the  firing  line.  Let  it  be  "the  Sunday 
School  Normal  Class,"  a  part  of  the  regular  system. 

(^f)  The  Home  Department.  The  Denominations  have 
made  splendid  use  of  this  idea.  The  Church  has  only  begun  to 
appreciate  it.  There  are  not  more  than  five  (or  less)  Home  De- 
partments in  the  Church  in  New  York  City,  for  example.    Yet 


396  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

it  is  not  only  an  admirable  plan;  but  essential  for  a  complete 
system.  It  reaches  ALL  who  cannot  come  to  Sunday  School. 
It  uses  the  same  equipment  that  the  Eegular  School  has,  the 
same  Lesson,  Text  Books,  etc.,  for  each  age;  the  same  Aids, 
Marks,  Collections,  Certificates,  Diplomas,  Prizes,  Privileges 
(as  Excursions,  Fresh  Air  Trips,  Christmas  Present,  etc.)  ;  and 
enrolls  its  students  as  Regular  Members  of  the  General  Sunday 
School.  The  point  is,  the  work  is  done  at  home,  written  out, 
reported  to  Home  Department  Visiting  Secretaries,  and  is  in 
the  nature  of  a  "Correspondence  School,"  for  those  who  from 
distance,  sickness,  deformity,  home  duties,  etc.,  cannot  attend 
the  sessions  of  the  School.  Parents  may  become  Sunday  School 
Scholars  again,  with  their  little  ones  at  their  knee.  Forms, 
Blanks,  Circulars,  etc.,  are  obtainable  for  the  system.  The  ma- 
chinery is  adaptable  to  the  Church,  and  is  a  vast  possibility 
going  to  waste  for  lack  of  use. 

Selecting  Teachers. 

Dr.  Butler  writes :  "How  to  obtain  teachers  qualified  to  in- 
struct immortal  souls  is  a  most  difficult  problem.  Some  per- 
sons think  it  strange  that  such  should  be  the  case;  but  it  would 
be  far  more  strange  if  efficient  teachers  were  plentiful.  If  there 
were  no  medical,  engineering,  nor  law  schools,  should  we  be 
surprised  to  find  that  physicians,  engineers,  and  lawyers  were 
not  to  be  found  when  wanted  ?  If  there  were  no  normal  schools, 
should  we  be  astonished  that  public  school  boards  were  unable 
to  find  qualified  teachers?  The  simple  fact  is  that  we  make  no 
provision  for  educating  our  teachers,  and  have  no  right  to  ex- 
pect to  have  them."  One  of  our  strong  Sunday  School  dioceses 
is  New  York.  Its  Commission  lately  made  an  effort  to  ascertain 
the  actual  condition  of  its  Schools.  Here  are  a  few  of  the  re- 
turns from  the  parishes:  Three  per  cent,  had  no  School;  an 
average  of  only  two  male  teachers  for  each  School ;  over  one-half 
the  Schools  were  not  graded;  twenty-nine  different  text  books 
and  systems  of  instruction  were  in  use.  To  the  request :  "Name 
the  three  chief  difficulties  in  the  way  of  efficient  work,"  the 
answer  of  over  half  the  parishes  was:  "Lack  of  competent  and 
faithful  teachers."     If  this  was  the  condition  in  the  Sunday 


THE  PLAN  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  397 

Schools  of  one  of  our  strong  dioceses,  what  must  it  be  in  our 
weaker  ones? 

Tlic  above,  and  other  equally  remarkable  answers  prompted 
the  same  Commission  to  make  a  later  effort  to  discover  what  was 
being  done  by  the  parislics  for  the  training  of  teachers.  The 
returns  showed  that  over  one-third  had  no  method  whatsoever; 
that  about  the  same  number  had  teachers'  meetings,  fairly  well 
attended,  but  many  others  had  abandoned  all  effort  for  "lack  of 
interest" ;  not  a  single  parish  reported  a  teachers'  normal  class. 
To  the  question:  "What  standard  of  teacher  is  desired?"  over 
one-fourth  answered,  "a  certificated  teacher";  about  the  same 
number  would  be  satisfied  with  one  who  had  "the  gift  of  teach- 
ing'' ;  while  one-fifth  made  "spiritual  gifts"  the  measure.  To  the 
question:  "What  standard  are  you  obliged  to  accept?"  came  the 
reply  of  one-half  of  the  parishes,  "Any  we  can  get  with  average 
knowledge,  and  an  average  realization  of  the  spiritual  import- 
ance of  the  work."  It  is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  over  one- 
fifth  also  reported  that  during  the  past  three  years  the  standard 
of  teaching  had  fallen.  The  surprising  thing  is  that  one-third 
were  able  to  report  improvement  in  numbers,  morals,  and  power 
over  the  children. 

If  a  person,  emotional,  good-intentioned,  incompetent,  asks 
the  Rector  for  a  class,  what  is  to  be  done  ?  If  he  has  his  teach- 
ers' list  in  his  pocket  (as  he  should  have),  he  has  simply  to  add 
that  person's  name  to  his  list,  explain  what  he  is  doing,  and 
thank  the  applicant  for  offering.  If  a  teacher  is  likely  to  be 
needed,  and  he  thinks  the  applicant  may  have  the  making  of  a 
good  teacher,  he  can  promise  to  ask  her  to  act  as  a  substitute. 
This  will  give  her  an  opportunity  to  learn,  and  him  to  see  her 
qualifications  for  the  place.  The  proper  time  to  secure  a  teacher 
is  before  there  is  a  vacancy.  Not  infrequently  a  good  worker 
can  promise  to  take  a  class  weeks  or  months  later,  who  could  not 
accept  the  position  at  once. 

Age  and  Sex  of  Teachers. 

According  to  Butler :  "The  influence  of  age  and  sex  should 
be  carefully  considered.  The  tendency  is  toward  young  teachers, 
they  are  the  easiest  to  obtain.  They  want  to  teach  before  they 
know  what  or  how  to  teach.     If  they  are  not  giddy,  they  are 


398  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

spiritually  inexperienced,  and  therefore  unfitted  to  instruct 
others.  The  effect  on  the  Sunday  School  is  also  bad,  as  I  know 
from  sad  experience.  The  children  feel  what  they  cannot  ex- 
press, the  shallowness  of  the  instruction,  and  an  atmosphere  of 
unreality  soon  pervades  the  whole  school.  The  effect  on  the  con- 
gregation is  equally  bad.  When  the  leaders  of  the  parish  are 
not  represented  in  its  Sunday  School,  the  congregation  has  no 
interest  in  it,  and  what  is  inevitable,  declines  to  support  it. 

"As  a  rule,  the  best  instructors  are  mature  women.  But 
women  must  not  be  the  only  instructors,  if  we  are  going  to  hold 
the  older  boys.  The  present  proportion,  even  in  some  of  our 
best  dioceses,  of  one  man  to  four  women,  is  not  enough.  True, 
women  are  easier  to  obtain,  and  usually  are  more  spiritually- 
minded  than  men,  but  have  they  the  power  to  create  those  ideals 
of  manly  Christianity  which  a  young  boy  must  have  if  he  is  to 
be  saved?  The  condition  of  most  of  our  schools  answers  the 
question  only  too  plainly." 

Paid  Teachers. 

Says  Butler :  "The  securing  of  paid  teachers  has  been  advo- 
cated as  a  method  of  obtaining  properly  qualified  instructors. 
The  end  is  most  desirable;  the  means  has  been  tried  and  found 
wanting.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Sunday  School  revival  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  first  teachers  were  paid,  but  the  practice 
was  soon  discarded.  The  world-famous  School  of  Stockport 
(England),  which  has  trained  106,000  pupils  and  to-day  has 
5,000  on  its  rolls,  began  with  paid  helpers;  but  as  early  as  1794, 
five-sixths  of  its  teachers  received  no  pay.  In  the  United  States, 
the  Philadelphia  Sunday  School  Society  started  in  1791  with 
paid  teachers,  but  found  the  results  unsatisfactory,  and  soon 
secured  teachers  who  worked  for  love.  To-day  the  paid  teachers 
are  mainly  in  Jewish  synagogues,  and  even  there  such  payment 
is  the  exception,  not  the  rule." 

Teachers'  Meetings. 

There  arc  two  kinds  of  Teachers'  Meetings.  The  one  is  the 
old  kind,  nay,  the  present  kind,  to  a  heart-rending  extent.  It  is 
on  the  style  of  pigeon-feeding.  It  takes  a  group  of  teachers  and 
feeds  them  with  already  digested  pap.  The  food  is  stuffed  in, 
just  as  rapidly  as  the  conductor  can  talk.     The  teachers  make 


THE  PLAN  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  399 

mental  or  pencil  notes.  They  return  to  the  School  to  reproduce 
the  food  fed  them  a  few  days  before.  The  Teachers'  Class  lasted 
an  hour.  Their  School  Class  lasts  half-an-hour.  An  hour's 
material  cannot  be  insuflicient  for  a  half-hour's  reproduction — 
then,  forsooth,  why  study  for  more?  It  is  as  if  a  Seminary  Pro- 
fessor sought  to  cram  the  student  with  material  for  each  and 
every  sermon  he  might  ever  preach;  material  ready  for  repro- 
duction. 

The  other  sort  of  Teachers'  Class  is  general  training.  The 
Seminary  fits  the  Seminarian  for  the  battle  of  life,  building 
up  a  student.  He  is  trained  how  to  study,  how  to  seek  his  ma- 
terial, how  to  become  a  scholar,  how  to  prepare  each  sermon  in 
the  best  way.  So  here.  Let  each  teacher  be  trained  how  to 
study  and  then  get  up  each  lesson  at  home  independently,  with- 
out crutches,  as  the  Preacher  gets  up  liis  weekly  sermons  at  home. 
With  a  Subject-graded  School,  the  old  style  class  is  an  impossi- 
bility in  most  cases.  The  Clergy  ask  at  once :  "What  about  my 
Teachers'  Class,  then  ?"  Why,  turn  it  into  its  proper  work,  and 
take  it  out  of  its  false,  unnatural  position.  The  pigeon-fed 
teacher  will  be  no  more  "a  teacher"  after  ten  years  of  such  a 
class.  To  the  end  of  time  each  week's  lesson  must  be  supplied. 
Absence  from  class  means  no  lesson  or  a  poor  one  next  Sunday. 
Better  sacrifice  the  work  a  year,  and  use  the  class  to  train  teach- 
ers for  the  balance  of  their  usefulness. 

According  to  Fitch :  "A  true  teacher  never  thinks  his  edu- 
cation complete,  but  is  always  seeking  to  add  to  his  own  knowl- 
edge. The  moment  any  man  ceases  to  be  a  systematic  student, 
he  ceases  to  be  an  effective  teacher ;  he  gets  out  of  sympathy  with 
learners ;  he  loses  sight  of  the  process  by  which  new  truth  enters 
into  the  mind;  he  becomes  unable  to  understand  fully  the  diffi- 
culties experienced  by  others  who  are  receiving  loiowledge  for 
the  first  time.  It  is  by  the  act  of  acquiring,  and  by  watching  the 
process  by  which  you  yourself  acquire,  that  you  can  help  others 
to  acquire.  It  is  not  intended  by  this  that  the  thing  thus  ac- 
quired should  be  merely  a  greater  store  of  what  may  be  called 
school  learning,  or  of  what  has  a  conscious  and  visible  bearing 
on  the  work  of  the  school.  It  is  true  that  we  can  never  know  all 
that  is  to  be  Imown,  even  about  the  subjects  which  we  teach  in 
schools." 


400  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  With    acknowledged   hindrances   and   limitations,   due    to   building, 

equipment,  etc.,  how  can  you  suggest  improvements  for  your 
School  in  (a)  time  and  manner  of  meeting,  (b)  arrangement  of 
building,   (c)   placing  of  classes  and  scholars? 

2.  What  Departments  would  be  feasible  in  your  School?    What  names 

would  you  apply  to  them?  Is  there  any  significance  and  import- 
ance in  the  choice  of  names?    Why,  or  why  not? 

3.  What  is  the  use  of   the   Font  Roll?    Of   the   Home  Department? 

Why  do  you  not  organize  them? 

4.  Why  is  not  a  general  "Kindergarten  School"  desirable? 

5.  Compare  your  Teachers'  Meeting  with  the  one  suggested. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL- 
SUGGESTIONS. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Management: 

The  Business  Knd  of  the  Sunday  Schooi/.    Hammond. 
The  Model  Sunday  School.     Boynton. 
The  Bible  School.    McKinney. 
■     Handbook  on  Sunday  School  Wobk.    Peters. 
The  Modebn  Sunday  School.     Cope.     Index. 
How  to  Conduct  a  Sunday  School.    Lawrence.    Index. 
Churchman's  Manual.    Butler,    pp.  34-45. 

Rewards: 

•The  Art  op  Teaching.     Fitch,     pp.  27-28,  124-140. 

•Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching.    Fitch,    pp.  109-187. 

The  Foundations  of  Education.     Seeleu.     pp.  106-114. 

•The  Churchman's  Manual.     Butler.     See  Index. 

The  Modern  Sunday  School.     Cope.     Index. 

•How  to  Conduct  a  Sunday  School.     Lawrence.     Index, 

Officers. 

The  chief  officers  for  the  'TBusiness  End"  of  the  Sunday 
School  are  usually  (1)  Superintendent j  (2)  Secretanj,  and  in 
large  Schools,  Assistant  Secretaries;  (3)  Librarian;  (4)  Treas- 
urer, in  small  Schools  usually  combined  with  the  Secretaryship; 
(5)  Grading  Teacher. 
Superintendent. 

He  is  best  a  Layman  of  pronounced  Business  Ability.  If  a 
Minister  be  Superintendent,  let  us  urge  most  emphatically  that 
it  be  under  the  oversight  of  the  Pastor  and  not  of  an  Assistant. 
If  needful  in  order  to  lighten  too  arduous  duties,  let  the  Assist- 
ant relieve  his  Superior  of  other  labors  to  a  larger  extent.  The 
duties  of  the  Superintendent  should  be  the  Business  oversight 
of  every  Department  and  Officer,  down  to  the  smallest  detail. 
All  matters  of  Eecord  should  be  reported  directly  to  him  weekly 
through  the  head  Secretary.  This  means  that  the  Treasurer, 
Librarian,  and  Grading  Teacher  should  report  to  the  Secretary. 


402  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

The  point  is  to  give  eacli  person  the  fullest  personal  responsi- 
bility for  the  fulfilment  of  liis  own  assigned  duties.  The  Super- 
intendent should  control  the  school,  give  out  notices,  accept  new- 
teachers  (unless  it  be  arranged  that  the  Grading  Teacher  exam- 
ine all  teaching  applicants),  appoint  teachers  to  classes,  assign 
Substitute  Teachers,  etc.  The  opening  and  closing  Services 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  Minister.  Upon  the  Superintend- 
ent the  whole  order  and  system  of  the  School  depends. 

Dr.  A.  A.  Butler  in  his  Churchman's  Manual  gives  the 
same  advice  in  such  cogent  language  that  we  quote  him  in  full : 
"In  most  parishes  the  Superintendent  is  a  layman,  and  it  is  best 
that  it  should  be  so.  If  he  is  (as  he  should  be),  a  man  of  mature 
age,  brought  up  in  the  Church,  he  will  be  a  loyal  helper.  The 
turning  over  of  the  Sunday  School  to  a  young  clerical  assistant 
is  a  mistake;  unless  he  has  received  a  special  training  for  the 
work.  He  often  becomes  a  substitute  for  the  Eector,  and  helps 
to  perpetuate  the  false  idea  that  the  Eector's  other  duties  are 
more  important  than  caring  for  the  children.  I  know  that  this 
idea  is  an  old  deeply-rooted  one;  that  in  fact  it  was  once  an 
apostolic  idea,  but  have  we  forgotten  what  the  Apostles'  Lord  had 
to  say  about  it?  (St.  Mark  10:  13).  A  young  deacon  cannot 
bring  to  the  School  the  experience  of  a  parish  priest  of  mature 
years,  or  of  a  godly  layman  of  like  age.  Moreover,  the  officering 
of  a  Sunday  School  by  ministers  and  women  produces  a  bad 
effect  upon  the  older  boys  of  the  School.  The  Eector  had  far 
better  give  some  of  his  routine  work  to  the  clerical  assistant  and 
the  superintendentship  to  an  experienced  layman." 

The  Secretaries. 

In  small  schools  one  person  often  fills  the  place  of  Secretary 
and  Treasurer.  In  a  large  School  there  should  be  Secretaries 
over  (a)  Font  Eoll;  (h)  Kindergarten  Department;  (c)  Pri- 
mary Department;  (d)  Each  Division  of  the  Main  School  and 
separate  ones  for  Boys  and  Girls;  (e)  High  School  (/)  Post- 
graduate School;  (g)  Home  Departmennt.  Each  of  these  are 
then  really  Assistant  or  Deputy  Secretaries  under  (h)  the  Head 
or  Master  Secretary,  or  Registrar. 

DUTIES  OF  OFFICEES. 
(a.)    Department  Secretaries.     (1)  Record  of  attend- 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  403 

ance  of  Teachers  and  Scholars.  The  system  is  simple  and  ex- 
peditious, occupying  not  more  than  five  minutes.  It  notes  on  a 
similar  basis  the  attendance  at  Sunday  School  and  at  Church, 
failure  in  Good  Conduct  (good  conduct  being  assumed)  and 
character  of  Eecitation.  A  Card  System  may  be  used,  or  a  Book 
System.  The  Gorham  Class  Book  affords  the  most  complete  and 
least  cumbersome  system,  being  a  permanent  record  of  every- 
thing for  the  entire  year,  and  avoiding  subsequent  re-copying. 

(2)  Records  of  New  Teachers,  New  Scholars,  Change  of 
Address,  Illness,  Removal,  Transfer,  Resignation,  etc.  A  Card 
System  in  a  File  Case  is  the  best.  A  Card  is  amended  and  filed 
in  proper  place  very  readily,  and  a  permanent  record  of  Scholars 
who  have  severed  connection  with  the  School  filed  back  of  those 
then  attending.  If  such  a  child  return  the  next  year,  his  card 
is  simply  re-filed  with  a  note.  Eecord  of  Illness  is  important 
for  final  marks  at  Graduation,  and  for  notification  to  Teacher 
and  Minister  for  calling,  and,  in  case  of  contagious  disease,  for 
proper  absence  of  other  children  from  the  same  house.  A  proper 
Transfer  Blank  should  be  filled  out  and  furnished  each  child 
removing  elsewhere.  If  the  child  be  absent  for  a  Summer  Vaca- 
tion, and  attends  Sunday  School  in  the  Vacation  Town,  a  Card 
Form  to  be  filled  in  by  the  Summer  School  Secretary  may  be 
given  by  the  Home  Secretary,  and  thus  credit  secured  for  the 
child  in  the  marks  of  its  own  school,  just  as  credit  is  given  for 
marks  received  in  another  college. 

(3)  Record  of  Examination  Maries  and  of  Report  Standing. 
Examination  marks  should  always  be  carefully  preserved  on  the 
File  Card.  All  Systematic  Schools  will  make  use  of  a  Report 
Form,  which  provides  for  the  notification  of  the  Parents,  each 
one,  two,  three,  or  four  months,  as  local  conditions  warrant,  of 
the  standing  of  tlie  child  in  every  particular.  This  Report  is 
signed  and  returned  by  the  Parents  and  as  such  becomes  a  per- 
manent Record  when  filed.  Certificates  are  given  for  Perfect 
Recitation  of  Catechism  and  for  each  Examination,  and  a 
Diploma  at  Graduation.  Forms  of  these  are  provided  by  many 
publishers.  They  are  made  out  by  the  Secretary  and  signed  by 
the  Teacher,  the  Superintendent,  and  the  IMinister. 

(4)  The  Treasurer  Files  a  Record  of  Collections  (Totals 


404  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

and  Class)  with  the  Secretary's  Department,  keeping  his  own 
books,  however,  as  is  customary. 

A  record  of  Library  Eoutine  is  sometimes  also  filed  with 
the  Secretary. 

(b)  Eegistrak.  Much  of  the  work  of  making  out  Cer- 
tificates, forms,  etc.,  care  of  Card  Catalogue,  Filing  and  Over- 
sight of  all  Records,  Examination  of  all  Books,  etc.,  properly 
come  under  the  routine  work,  or  at  least  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  Registrar  or  Head  Secretary. 

(c)  Treasurer.  In  some  Schools  the  Offertory  is  taken  by 
classes,  in  class  envelopes,  offered  to  God,  and  later  on  counted 
by  classes.  In  others,  it  is  entered  in  Class  Books  by  each 
teacher.  Taking  note  of  how  much  each  child  gives  is  danger- 
ous, putting  premium  on  wealth.  It  lies  between  our  conscience 
and  ourselves  what  we  return  to  God.  A  Class  Record  is  con- 
sistent. The  fact  that  each  child  has  given  something  should 
also  be  noted.  Therefore  the  best  Class  Book  Mark  is  simply 
a  check,  leaving  the  Treasurer  to  record  the  amount  per  class. 

(d)  The  Librarian.  The  Sunday  School  Library  should 
consist  of  books  of  value  for  the  lesson  work  and  research  of 
scholars  and  teachers;  books  for  general  missionary,  inspira- 
tional, devotional,  and  fictional  reading;  books  for  teacher- 
training  and  normal  class  work,  and  some  standard  dictionary 
and  religious  encyclopedic  works. 

Books  ordinarily  found  in  the  Public  Library  should  not  be 
duplicated  in  the  Sunday  School,  for  the  Sunday  School  Library 
should  be  a  special  library,  specialized  for  the  teachers  and  for 
the  pupils.  Moreover,  every  Sunday  School  should  have  a  spe- 
cial library,  of  which  it  should  not  only  post  circulars  and  supply 
catalogues  of  the  list  of  books  contained  in  it,  but  carefully  can- 
vass the  files  of  the  Public  Library,  and  post  in  the  Sunday 
School  special  lists  of  books  particularly  appropriate  for  the 
Sunday  School  lesson  work,  and  especially  to  be  recommended 
for  general  home  reading  even  along  secular  lines.  This  en- 
hances the  value  of  both  libraries  manifold. 

(e)  The  Grading  Teacher.  This  is  an  excellent  plan, 
even  for  a  small  school.  Let  a  teacher  be  selected  who  is  fond 
of  children,  who  knows  human  nature,  who  is  quick  in  tact,  in 
discernment  and  judgment,  who  has  made  a  psychological  and 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  405 

pedagogical  study  of  the  child  and  of  Education.  This  teacher 
should  talk  with  and  examine  every  incoming  scholar,  and  con- 
sider his  qualifications,  perhaps  conduct  the  Teachers'  Training 
and  Normal  Classes,  and  be  a  member  of  the  Committee  on 
Examination  and  Graduation. 

(/)  The  Committee  on  Examination  and  Graduation. 
A  representative  and  capable  Committee  should  prepare  Exami- 
nation Questions  (for  Oral  Work  below  the  age  of  nine  or  ten 
and  Written  Work  above  that  age),  conduct  annual  or  semi- 
annual Examinations,  prepare  records  for  Certificates  and  Di- 
plomas, take  charge  of  Commencement  Day  and  Graduation,  act 
as  Arbiter  in  the  matter  of  all  Prizes  and  Rewards.  The  indi- 
vidual caprice  and  unconscious  favoritism  of  individual  teachers 
shown  to  pet  scholars  (or  often  the  reverse,  prejudice)  should  be 
Avholly  eliminated  by  the  Sunday  School,  which,  of  all  educa- 
tional institutions,  ought  to  be  absolutely  fair  and  unbiased. 

(g)  The  Messenger  Service. 

This  is  a  valuable  plan,  doubly  serviceable,  both  to  the  boys, 
for  whom  so  little  active  work  can  be  found,  and  for  the  School. 
A  Corps  of  Messengers  is  selected  from  among  the  boys  of  from 
ten  to  fourteen.  Their  duties  are  to  call  on  absentees,  run 
errands,  give  notices  at  the  homes,  etc.  There  are  caps,  badges, 
introduction  letters,  cards,  and  messages,  all  printed  in  forms 
and  purchasable  for  this  purpose. 
Use  of  Rewards,  Incentives,  and  Punishments. 

It  is  both  an  (a)  Ethical  and  a  (b)  Practical  Question  that 
is  here  involved. 

Do  they  help  ?  It  depends  on  their  use,  the  teacher,  and  the 
child.  Often  many  provide  a  false,  extrinsic,  harmful  interest. 
With  high  ideals  and  the  best  teaching,  they  will  disappear,  as 
they  have  disappeared  almost  wholly  from  the  Common  School. 
Discipline  is  no  longer  a  factor  there. 

Incentives  and  Rewards  are  seldom  used,  excepting  as  far 
distant  Prizes,  Scholarships,  etc.  They  lower  the  ideal  of  the 
School.  The  lower  the  class  of  children,  the  poorer  the  teachers, 
the  greater  will  be  the  use  of  Prizes  and  Rewards.  As  the  level 
rises,  the  external  motives  tend  to  disappear;  and  the  motive  of 
genuine  Interest  is  substituted.  Other  Incentives,  such  as  Emu- 
lation, Rivalry,  etc.,  are  to  be  used  but  sparingly. 


406  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

Induceineiits  to  Order  which  appeal  to  selfishness  have  no 
proper  place  in  true  discipline.  For  this  reason  prizes  are  al- 
ways dangerous,  and  often  do  more  harm  than  good.  A  prize 
is  "something  taken  from  another";  it  makes  no  difference 
whether  it  is  gained  by  animal  power,  or  mental  power.  A 
reward  is  something  given  to  everyone  who  reaches  a  fixed 
standard.  Prizes  are  limited  to  one  or  two  individuals.  Ee- 
wards  are  open  to  all. 

Inadequacy  of  the  Sunday  School  Compared  with  the  Public  School. 
The  Sunday  School,  which  is  expected  to  furnish  one-fifth 
of  man's  educational  outfit,  is  deficient: 

1.  In  Infreque?icy  of  Sessions.  Once  a  week,  with  a  period 
of  less  than  one  hour  usually,  of  which  about  thirty  minutes  is 
devoted  to  the  Lesson,  this  brief  time  interrupted  in  a  most 
careless  and  indifferent  manner  by  all  sorts  of  needless  distrac- 
tions, is  far  too  short.  A  Saturday  School  or  a  Week-day  After- 
noon School  would  be  far  more  edicient.  It  is  feasible.  It  has 
been  attempted,  and  succeeded. 

2.  In  lack  of  Trained  Teachers.  This  is  obvious,  although 
the  very  teachers  who  will  take  exception  to  this  statement  will 
be  the  particular  ones  who  need  training  the  most.  The  more 
one  studies,  the  more  one  learns;  the  more  we  realize  what 
ignoramuses  we  are,  the  more  humble  we  become,  eagerly  seek- 
ing after  knowledge. 

3.  In  Method.  Compare  it  with  the  Day  School,  and  you 
will  wonder  that  children  do  not  openly  express  their  contempt 
of  the  system,  and  rebel.  It  is  to-day  where  the  Day  Scliool  was 
twenty  to  twenty-five  years  ago.  Children,  huddled  together  in 
pews,  talked  to  from  ill-printed,  ill-arranged  text  books,  hurried 
through  lessons  in  recitation  fashion,  often  bearing  away  from 
class  not  a  single  new  idea,  represent  the  fashion  of  what  is 
still  in  many  places  the  modern  Sunday  School. 

Week  Day  Religious  Instruction. 

The  past  few  years  have  witnessed  a  most  significant  and 
remarkable  awakening  of  the  American  people  of  all  types  of 
religion  throughout  the  entire  country,  recording  our  personal 
responsibility  for  the  spiritual  training  of  the  child.  In  Boston, 
Albany,  Brooklyn,   New  York,  Washington,  and  even  Seattle 


Till']  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  407 

(Wash.),  citizens  have  become  aroused  and  conferences  have 
been  held.  It  is  plainly  apparent  that  the  Public  Schools 
have  not  fore-armed  our  children  against  sin  and  crime.  Secu- 
lar education  is  not  meeting  the  spiritual  needs  of  youth.  The 
Nation  is  educating  the  bodies  and  the  minds,  but  is  utterly 
neglecting  the  soul.  Under  present  State  Laws,  since  the  Wis- 
consin decision  of  188G,  the  Public  School  cannot  supply  this 
deficiency,  even  if  religious  differences  could  agree  on  a  basis 
or  modicum  for  religious  or  moral  instruction,  to  be  incor- 
porated into  the  school  system.  It  is  an  undoubted  fact,  easily 
proven  by  statistics,  both  economic  and  penal,  that  crime  is 
steadily  on  the  increase  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of 
our  Nation.  De-spiritualization  is  proving  the  moral  cancer 
of  our  Nation,  and,  if  not  checked,  must  spell  its  downfall. 
The  recent  disclosures  of  callous  consciences  in  men  high  in 
public  honor  and  esteem,  high  in  wealth  and  education,  are  clear 
manifestations  of  this  blight. 

Moreover,  churchless  Protestants,  Romanists,  and  Jews  are 
on  the  increase.  The  recent  study  of  religious  conditions  in 
greater  New  York,  under  the  Federation  of  Churches,  shows 
that  the  churchless  Protestants  of  New  York  outnumber  the 
whole  population  of  Nebraska,  and  are  the  equivalent  of  the 
whole  population  of  Washington,  Idaho,  Montana,  and  Wyoming. 

While  it  is  not  at  all  assured  that  the  Public  School  could 
not,  if  it  would,  satisfactorily  solve  the  problem,  just  as  Germany 
has  solved  it,  by  the  requirement  of  some  form  of  religious  in- 
struction to  be  given  in  the  schools  at  an  assigned  hour  each 
day  by  "Confessional  Instructors"  representing  the  three  great 
religions  of  that  country  (Romanism,  Lutheranism,  and  Juda- 
ism), these  Professors  of  Religion  being  appointed  and  paid  by 
the  Churches  themselves,  although  the  appointments  must  be 
confirmed  by  the  School  Boards;  yet  it  would  seem  likely  that 
in  this  modern  day  with  our  American  sense  of  fairness,  co- 
operation, and  combination,  we  can  adopt  a  wiser  and  more  sat- 
isfactory plan. 

France  supplies  nothing  but  "moral  instruction"  of  a 
vaguely  religious  but  extremely  patriotic  stripe,  yet  she  recog- 
nizes the  importance  of  truly  religious  education,  giving  a  holi- 
day  on   Tuesdays   in   order   that   children   may    attend   their 


408  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

Churches  for  instruction  by  the  parish  priests.  Under  our  pres- 
ent disorganized  and  chaotic  condition,  both  in  the  Churches  at 
large  and  particuLirly  in  our  haphazard  Sunday  Schools,  this 
plan,  though  it  would  be  of  some  advantage,  will  not,  we  ven- 
ture to  think,  meet  practical  requirements.  Several  conferences 
have  been  held  in  New  York  City,  led  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wcnncr 
of  the  Grace  Lutheran  Church,  at  which  Fr.  McMillan  of  the 
Paulist  Fathers,  Bishop  Greer,  Eabbi  Mendes,  and  Dr.  North 
urged  upon  the  Board  of  Education  the  dismissal  of  children 
on  Wednesday  afternoons,  on  written  application  by  the  parents, 
to  attend  their  own  Churches  for  religious  instruction.  In 
Illinois  and  Ohio,  several  Church  parishes  have  for  a  year  or 
more  been  taking  advantage  of  similar  provisions  in  the  laws  of 
their  public  schools,  and  in  one  instance  quite  successful  week- 
day schools  of  religious  instruction  have  been  maintained. 

But  we  can  safely  go  somewhat  farther.  The  school  build- 
ings are  acknowledgedly  the  property  of  the  citizens  who  have 
paid  for  their  construction.  This  is  recognized  in  the  New  York 
administration  by  the  use  of  the  schools  for  evening  clubs, 
debating  societies,  public  lectures,  etc.  Why  would  it  not  be 
feasible  (and  it  certainly  could  not  arouse  the  slightest  sectarian 
differences)  to  have  all  children  dismissed,  say  on  Wednesday 
afternoons,  and  the  school  buildings  themselves,  with  their  peda- 
gogical day-school  equipment  of  separate  rooms,  desks,  maps, 
blackboards,  etc.,  be  freely  thrown  open  to  any  religious  body 
asking  a  room  for  the  establishment  of  a  sectarian  school  for 
religious  instruction  in  that  locality  of  the  city?  There  are 
never  less  than  ten  rooms  to  a  school  and  there  are  several  hun- 
dred schools,  so  that  counting  all  religious  bodies,  it  is  practically 
impossible  that  there  should  be  a  dearth  of  accommodations.  It 
might  be  urged  that  the  parents  of  some  children  would  not  want 
any  religious  instruction  given,  but  the  statistics  of  the  Federa- 
tion of  Churches  have  shovm  that  so-called  "atheists"  scarcely 
average  more  than  one  to  80,000  even  in  New  York,  at  least  so 
far  as  putting  themselves  down  as  "atheists"  when  it  comes  to 
the  point  of  record.  It  would  not  be  unfair  to  demand  that 
some  amount  of  religious  instruction  should  be  given  every 
child  whose  parents  are  enrolled  under  some  creed.  It  would 
also  be  fair  for  the  school  authorities  to  demand  that  the  re- 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  409 

li^ious  instruction  given  and  paid  for  by  the  Churches  should  be 
of  hi<i:h  ethicational  standards  under  properly  trained  teachers, 
as  a  condition  of  securing  rooms  in  a  school  building.  This 
would  put  the  responsibility  clearly  and  fairly  on  the  religious 
conununity.  Even  if  the  matter  of  school  attendance  on  re- 
ligious instruction  was  purely  voluntary,  the  fact  that  such 
week-day  schools  were  held,  and  children  dismissed  to  attend 
them,  would  certainly  give  a  marked  impetus  to  the  entire  mat- 
ter of  religious  education. 

Calvary  Church,  New  York,  has  for  over  a  year  conducted 
a  week-day  school  of  religion,  containing  over  100  children,  meet- 
ing Wednesday  afternoons  after  school  hours.  The  curriculum 
has  been  strict  and  severe;  and  excellent  results  have  been  ob- 
tained.    This  would  certainly  be  practicable  in  other  cities. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  Wliat    would    be    the    detailed    definite    duties,    in    order,    of    your 

Superintendent,  presuming  that  he  "superintends"? 

2.  What  functions  are  properly  those  of  an  ideal  Secretary?    In  what 

ways  might  the  fulfilment  of  such  duties  hinder  the  working  of 
the  School?    How  might  the  work  be  improved  in  your  School? 

3.  Wliat  books   would  you  suggest  to  your  Superintendent  for  addi- 

tion to  the  Library?  What  for  teachers'  use?  How  should  the 
Library  cooperate  with  the  Public  Libraries,  wlien  near  by?  How 
would  it  do  to  suggest  book  lists  posted  in  Sunday  School,  of 
Public  Library  books  of  help  and  inspiration?  Could  not  a 
Teachers'  Circulating  Library  be  secured  among  your  corps  by 
individually  subscribing  each  to  purchase  one  book? 

4.  How  would  a  Grading  Teacher  aid  your  School? 

5.  What  special  dangers  would  the  Examination  Committee  be  apt  to 

meet  with?    How  could  it  avoid  them? 


PART  VIII. 

The  History  of  Religious  Education 

The  Source  of  Teaching 


CHAPTEE  XXVII. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION. 
TO  THE  RENAISSANCE. 

SUGGESTED    READINGS. 

♦Pre-Christian  Education.     Laurie.     Index. 

Text-Book  in  the  History  op  Education.     Monroe.     Index. 

•The  Pedagogical  Kiblk  School.     Haslett.     Chap.  I. 

The  Modern  Sunday  School.     Cope.     Chap.  II. 

♦The  Rise  and  Early  Institution  of  Universities.   Laurie.    See  Index 

The  Holy  Roman  F^mpire.    Bryce. 

It  is  impossible  in  the  brief  space  of  a  book  like  this  to  enter 
at  all  fully  or  adequately  into  the  history  of  the  marvellous  evo- 
lution in  progress  of  the  ideals  of  religious  education.  It  is  a 
subject  by  itself,  yet  one  of  such  transcendent  importance  that  no 
leader  in  the  Sunday  School  work,  no  trainer  of  teachers,  should 
be  content  with  the  meagre  outline  here  furnished. 

Great  nations  of  the  past  have  each  stood  for  a  single  ideal 
in  education.  Each  nation  as  it  rose  and  waned  moved  forward 
to  a  higher  ideal  than  the  nation  which  preceded  it.  It  is  a  pic- 
ture of  continual  progression  of  entrancing  interest  and  pregnant 
with  educational  ideals.  As  we  glance  over  this  past  history, 
we  can  see  that  in  a  way  all  Education  is  Eeligious.  Strictly 
speaking,  it  has  been  born  out  of  the  needs  of  the  race  in  its 
adjustment  to  the  world  of  phenomena  on  the  one  side  and  its 
adjustment  to  the  world  of  spirit  on  the  other.  If  we  were  to 
study  the  history  of  Education  in  detail,  which  of  course  we  can- 
not do  here,  we  would  enter  into  the  consideration  of  man's 
adjustment  to  the  world,  first  in  obtaining  the  necessities  of  life 
(food,  clothing,  shelter),  and  second,  in  his  social  adjustment 
(the  family,  labor,  crafts,  and  caste)  ;  and  his  adjustment  to  the 
spiritual  world,  first  in  relation  to  unfriendly  spirits,  and  second, 
in  relation  to  friendly  ones.  Let  us  consider  briefly  a  few  of  the 
races  that  stand  as  types  for  particular  ideals  of  education. 


414  RELI©IOUS  EDUCATION 

Chinese  Education. 

China  is  a  type  of  Asiatic  Education.  It  holds  now  with 
them  as  it  licld  since  1000  A.  D.,  and  most  of  it  even  goes  hack 
to  500  B.  C.  Chinese  ideals  are  based  on  the  books  of  Confucius : 
"What  Heaven  has  conferred  is  called  Nature,  and  accordance 
with  Nature  in  the  past  is  beauty,  regulation  of  this  past  is 
Education."  Tliat  is,  what  is  or  has  been  is  right,  and  Educa- 
tion is  merely  to  direct  in  the  beaten  path.  The  Family  is  the 
foundation  of  Chinese  Education — in  the  unit  of  the  state  indi- 
viduality does  not  exist.  All  relations  are  definitely  settled  by 
rule.  Acts  have  only  an  outer  or  external  value — motive  plays 
no  part.  Punishment  is  always  the  same,  corporal.  There  is 
no  moral  freedom,  and  no  sense  of  honor  or  of  shame.  There  is  no 
Aristocracy  in  China  except  through  Education,  the  advantages 
of  which  are  open  to  all.  The  aim  of  this  Education  is  simply 
conduct  or  behavior  and  the  preservation  of  the  past.  It  consists 
in  committing  to  memory  elaborate  sermons  and  the  training  to 
act  on  these  formulae.  There  is  no  call  for  principles,  there  is 
no  moral  element  in  life.  In  a  word,  in  China,  Authority  is 
precedent. 

Egyptian  Education. 

Egypt  is  a  connecting  link  between  the  immutability  of 
China  and  the  progress  of  Greek  Education.  Egypt  would  re- 
tain the  best  in  its  essence,  though  not  in  its  entirety.  Progress 
took  place  in  Egypt,  but  by  chance.  There  was  no  conscious  at- 
tempt to  bring  it  about.  The  Priesthood  and  Eeligion  in  a 
polytheistic  sense  controlled  their  ideals.  They  had  no  definite 
means  of  instruction,  and  education,  as  such,  clustered  around 
the  Priesthood. 

Their  minds  possessed  much  subtlety  and  acuteness.  They 
were  fond  of  literary  composition.  It  is  astonishing  what  ex- 
tensive literature  they  possessed  at  a  very  early  date ;  books  on 
religion,  morals,  law,  rhetoric,  arithmetic,  mensuration,  geom- 
etry, medicine,  travels,  and  even  novels.  All  of  these,  however, 
were  very  meagre  and  brief. 

As  early  as  the  Sixth  Dynasty  (3,500  B.  C.)  an  official  bore 
the  title  of  "the  Governor  of  the  House  of  Books."  The  literary 
merit  of  the  Egyptian  works  is  very  slight. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  415 

Of  the  learned  professions,  tlie  most  important  was  that  of 
scribe.  A  hirge  number  of  professional  penmen  were  employed, 
either  to  multiply  copies  of  the  '''Kitual  of  the  Dead"  or  as  pri- 
vate secretaries  or  bailiffs. 

The  religious  aspect  of  this  education  in  its  highest  form 
only  reached  the  fruit  of  a  dreamy  meditation  on  the  broad 
aspects  of  life  and  death ;  in  its  vulgar  form  it  was  a  mixture  of 
animal  worship  and  debased  superstition.  Even  the  artistic 
tastes  of  the  Egyptians  were  limited  to  the  symbolic  and  realistic, 
and  did  not  embrace  ideal  forms,  save  in  architecture.  Music 
was  of  a  primitive  and  stereotyped  kind,  descended  from  the  most 
remote  antiquity. 

Babylonian  Education. 

The  Babylonians  belonged  to  the  Semitic  race.  So  also 
did  the  Arabs,  Assyrians,  Phoenicians,  and  Hebrews.  These 
races  inhabited  that  central  region  of  the  Old  World  which  ex- 
tends from  the  Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs  and  the  Zagros  Moun- 
tains to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Taurus  range.  The  Semitic 
races  were,  like  the  Egyptians,  of  a  serious,  prosaic,  matter-of- 
fact  character.  The  Hebrews  alone  exhibited  a  certain  loftiness 
of  genius,  but  this  was  in  a  narrow  field.  The  Babylonians  were 
the  primary  center  of  j\Iesopotamian  culture  and  religion,  though 
they  themselves  rested  on  a  still  earlier  civilization.  The  true 
greatness  of  Babylon  as  a  city  began  about  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury B.  C.  Nineveh  was  the  center  of  war,  while  Babylon  was 
the  center  of  culture. 

Babylonian  culture  in  all  its  forms  rested  on  that  of  the 
early  occupants  of  the  land,  known  as  Accadians  or  Sumir- 
Accadians.  Their  religion  was  the  animistic  and  fetichistic. 
They  believed  in  many  demons,  good  and  evil,  but  also  believed 
in  a  supreme  god  among  the  gods.  They  practised  magic  and 
incantations.  It  was  taught  that  the  gods  received  into  pleas- 
ant regions  all  who  served  them  well  during  life.  This  was  a 
great  ethical  advance.  They  exhibited  in  their  worship  "a  vivid 
sense  of  sin,  a  deep  feeling  of  man's  dependence,  even  of  his 
nothingness  before  God."  The  sense  of  a  personal  relation  be- 
tween God  and  the  human  soul,  so  characteristic  of  the  Semitic 
race,  first  made  its  appearance  here. 


416  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

In  those  things  that  pertain  to  comfort  and  luxury,  the 
Babylonians  acquired  high  architectural  perfection  and  engineer- 
ing skill.  Their  literature  for  the  higher  classes  was  extensive. 
Every  town  had  its  library  on  brick  tablets,  which  were  neces- 
sarily very  brief,  owing  to  the  slow  process  of  writing  on  soft 
clay  with  a  stylus. 

Of  the  schools  and  teachers  we  know  nothing.  Tablets  have 
been  found  in  Babylon  on  which  school  exercises  were  written, 
however.  Where  learning  and  teaching  existed  there  must,  of 
course,  have  been  teachers,  and  we  may  conclude  that  priests  and 
scribes  were  numerous,  who  probably  gave  individual,  not  class, 
instruction. 

Assyrian  Education. 

Higher  than  Babylonians  in  emphasizing  the  personal  char- 
acter of  the  supreme  God,  under  the  name  of  Asshur,  the  god  of 
battles,  as  was  natural  with  a  warlike  people,  were  the  Assyrians. 
Education  of  the  better  kind  was,  however,  restricted  to  the 
priesthood,  the  royal  court,  and  the  scribes.  The  great  Assyrian 
monarch,  Assur-bani-pal,  had  an  enormous  library  at  Nineveh, 
which  has  been  recently  unearthed. 

Phoenician  Education. 

With  the  Phoenicians  we  find  material  aims  and  luxurious 
living  similar  to  those  which  characterized  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians,  but  in  a  grosser  form.  Phoenicia  has  naught  to 
teach  us,  save  as  a  warning  in  the  line  of  education,  with  the 
single  exception  that  to  her  we  owe  the  invention  of  symbols  for 
numbers  and  the  element  of  sound  in  words.  There  is  no  evi- 
dence of  any  moral  idea  in  her  civilization. 

Hebrew  or  Jewish   Education. 

The  most  famous  Semitic  race  was  the  Hebrews,  who  immi- 
grated into  Palestine  about  2000  B.  C.  Their  history,  properly 
speaking,  began  with  the  emigration  from  Egypt  under  Moses, 
about  1490  B.  C.  Moses,  the  most  exalted  figure  in  all  primitive 
history,  thought  of  God  as  an  intellectual  Being,  independent 
of  all  material  existence.  This  thought  was  seized  by  him  and 
incorporated  into  the  nation  which  he  led.  God  was  One — the 
sole  creator  of  heaven  and  earth — ultimate  Being.     He  was  a 


THE  Tlisronv  OF  IIKLirMolS  EDrC'ATlOX  417 

(iod  sii])r('nioIy  ethical,  and  (li'iiianded  oT  men  the  service  ol" 
ohedii'iice  to  iiioval  hiw.  Moses,  in  a  sense,  was  their  first  great 
schoolniastei'.  CnihT  his  training  and  instruction  the  oral  code 
was  folh)wed. 

h'arli/  i/t  the  liislori/  of  llic  iialion  the  ])riesls  were  enj^aged 
in  teaching,  as  Micah  ;!-ll  woidd  indicate;  but  the  school  in  an 
organized  form  came  much  later.  In  the  richer  families,  pri- 
vate teachers  were  employed,  as  is  still  the  custom  among  the 
Jews  (see  II  Kings  10:5;  II  Samuel,  ehs.  VZ-'Z')).  A  certain 
amount  of  religious  instruction  was  connected  with  the  Passover 
Service. 

.1  little,  later,  at  Mt.  Ebal  and  Mt.  (Jerizim,  two  mountains 
near  together,  upon  which  altars  were  erected,  Joshua  read  all 
the  Works  of  the  I.,aw  before  the  whole  congregation  (Joshua 
8:;30-35).     This  was  done  probably  two  or  three  times  a  year. 

The  "Schools  of  the  Prophets"  were  at  one  time  thought 
to  be  of  great  importance,  as  a  kind  of  tlieologieal  seminary, 
but  later  scholarship  denies  them  the  right  to  the  term  "school" 
at  all,  but  rather  Associations  of  Prophets,  not  education,  but 
edification  being  the  object  of  these  meetings  at  Jordan,  Kamah, 
Bethel,  Jericho,  and  Gilgal.  In  II  Chronicles  17 :  7-9  is  given  an 
account  of  the  Koyal  Commission  sent  out  by  Jehosaphat  to 
introduce  in  a  systematic  way  a  plan  of  instruction.  A  similar 
work  is  recorded  of  Josiah  in  II  Kings,  chs.  22  and  23. 

.4^  the  return  from  the  Exile,  a  new  era  in  the  Education 
of  the  history  of  Hebrews  was  begun.  Ezra  presided  over  a 
Bil)le  School  at  Jerusalem,  where  children  and  youths  and  adults 
gathered  to  receive  instruction  in  the  Law,  given  by  priests  who 
had  received  special  preparation  for  the  work.  It  is  really  the 
first  assembly  among  the  llcl)rews  that  could  be  called  a  religious 
school. 

It  was  about  this  time  that  the  synagogue  arose,  and 
through  it  regular  instruction  continued  to  be  imparted.  The 
'•'Bible  became  the  spelling  book  of  the  community  school ;  re- 
ligion an  affair  of  teaching  and  of  learning.  Piety  and  educa- 
tion were  inseparable;  whoever  could  not  read  was  no  Jew.  We 
may  say  that  in  this  way  were  created  the  beginnings  of  a  pop- 
ular education."     (Hastings'  Bible  Dictioxary.) 

If  we  were  to  divide  Jewish  education  into  periods  we  would 


418  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

say  roughly  that  the  First  Period  extended  from  the  Emigration 
from  Egypt  down  to  lOJ^S  B.  C,  when  Samuel  died;  the  Second 
Period  extended  from  lOJ^S  until  538  B.  C. — the  return  from 
the  Babylonian  Captivity;  the  Third  Period,  that  of  the  Scribe 
and  the  Synagogue,  ran  from  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  (the 
dedication  was  516  B.  C.)  to  the  birth  of  Christ. 

As  we  examine  these  three  periods  and  notice  the  details 
of  education,  we  see  a  great  fall  from  the  Schools  of  the 
Prophets  (whatever  they  may  have  stood  for)  to  the  Schools  of 
the  Scribes — from  the  Spiritual  Life  to  the  formal,  legal  and 
external.  The  Prophets  had  disappeared,  but  they  left  behind 
them  a  rich  inheritance  for  the  people.  Their  lofty  utterances 
were  preserved  in  written  documents,  but  the  interpretation  of 
these  documents  lay  behind  the  cold,  authorized,  oral  education, 
out  of  which  came  the  Talmud. 

"Every  eminent  teacher  of  the  Law  collected  round  him  a 
larger  or  smaller  number  of  young  men  who  desired,"  says 
Schiirer,  "to  be  educated  by  him  so  as  to  become  capable  scribes. 
With  this  purpose  in  view  there  existed  schoolhouses  in  which 
the  law  was  methodically  taught.  The  instruction  was  oral  and 
disputatory." 

Ilaslett  writes:  "During  the  period  between  the  Return 
and  about  100  B.  C,  a  class  of  professional  men  known  in 
Scripture  as  the  scribes,  arose,  'bookmen'  or  Sopherim,  as  they 
were  termed.  A  kind  of  literary  renaissance,  a  revival  of  the 
study  of  the  law,  followed  as  a  result  of  the  Exile  and  produced 
a  class  of  literary  students  and  teachers  of  the  law  who  carried 
forward  the  general  plan  of  instruction  begun  by  Ezra.  The 
'Sages'  seem  to  have  been  a  class  of  men  who  may  be  identified 
with  the  scribes  of  that  period  or  a  distinct  order,  but  they 
probably  were  educators,  as  the  book  of  Proverbs  would  indicate, 
this  book  being  attributed  to  their  genius.  Many  Biblical 
scholars  consider  the  book  of  Proverbs  as  a  thesaurus  of  Hebrew 
educational  principles  and  learning  of  that  period. 

"In  Hebrew  education,  'as  soon  as  the  child  reached  his 
third  year  he  began  to  memorize  verses  from  the  Bible,  and  when 
old  enough  a  tablet  was  given  on  which  he  learned  to  form  the 
letters.     At  table,  the  children  were  arranged  in  the  order  of 


THE  illSTOllY  t)F  KELIGIOL'S  EDUCATION  419 

their  ago,  so  that  the  older  ehildren  exercised  dominion  over  the 
younger.' 

''The  eliicf  subjects  taught  in  the  synagogue  were  the  Scrip- 
tures, tlie  system  of  Jewish  belief,  writing,  reading,  and  the 
Hebrew  language.  The  old  adage  says  that  at  Tive  years,  the  age 
is  reached  for  the  study  of  Scripture;  at  ten,  for  the  study  of  the 
]\Iishna;  at  thirteen,  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  Commandments; 
at  fifteen,  for  the  study  of  the  Talmud;  at  eighteen,  for  mar- 
riage.' " 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  a  synagogue  school : 
The  schoolroom  "is  the  interior  of  a  squalid  building,  rudely 
constructed  of  stone,  with  a  domed  roof  and  whitewashed  walls, 
a  wooden  desk  or  cupboard  on  one  side,  and  an  inscription  in 
Hebrew  over  the  door.  From  the  building,  as  we  approach, 
comes  the  hum  of  many  children's  voices,  repeating  the  verses 
of  the  sacred  Torah  in  unthinking  and  perfunctory  monotone. 
The  aged  teacher  sits  silent  in  the  midst.  As  we  look  in,  we  see 
his  huge  turban,  his  gray  beard,  and  solemn  features,  appearing 
over  the  ruddy  face?  of  the  dark-eyed  boys  who  sit  on  the  floor 

around  him The  scholars  are  the  children  of  the 

richer  members  of  the  village  community,  of  the  'men  of  leisure,' 
who  form  the  representative  congregation  at  every  synagogue 
service;  or  of  the  'standing  men,'  who  go  up  yearly  with  the 
village  priest  for  a  week  in  Jerusalem,  to  fulfil  similar  functions 
in  the  temple  ritual." 

By  the  Fonrth  Century  B.  C.  there  were  s3^nagogues  in  all 
towns;  by  the  Second  Century,  in  villages  also.  It  is  said  that 
there  were  at  least  four  hundred  in  Jerusalem  alone.  Fourteen 
different  words  are  used  by  writers  of  this  period  for  "schools." 

The  attendant  of  the  synagogue  taught  the  children  during 
the  week,  as  the  synagogue  gradually  became  a  school  for  the 
young,  as  well  as  the  adult,  though  even  so  late  as  the  Third 
Century  B.  C.  instruction  beyond  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic was  not  reached  by  any  save  a  few,  and  then  by  home 
teaching.  Popular  education,  however,  was  education  by  the 
synagogue.  Cradually  in  the  higher  circles  Hellenic  speculation 
and  literature  found  its  way.  There  were  many  who  studied  the 
Greek  language  and  literature,  mathematics,  foreign  tongues, 
geometry,  and  such  science  as  was  current.    The  scribes  secured 


420  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

great  power  in  both  circles,  prescribing  ceremonies  and  proscrib- 
ing certain  outward  acts.  The  burden  which  they  gradually  im- 
posed on  the  people  became  greater  than  they  could  bear. 

After  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem,  70  A.  D.,  most  of  the  scribes 
succeeded  as  rabbis  to  the  privileges  and  position  of  priesthood. 
The  Fourth  Period  of  Hebrew  education,  from  the  birth  of 
Christ  onward,  is  the  Period  of  the  Rabbi  and  the  Elementary 
School.  The  scribes'  schools  were  now  called  Rabbinical 
Schools,  and  an  order  arose  which  was  at  once  preacher,  teacher, 
and  legal  adviser,  exercising  supreme  power.  In  A.  D.  64 
Elementary  Schools  were  made  obligatory  by  the  High  Priest, 
Josue  ben  Oanala.  A  teacher  was  employed  where  there  were 
twenty-five  children,  an  assistant  where  the  number  exceeded 
twenty-five,  and  two  teachers  where  tlie  number  of  pupils  ex- 
ceeded forty.  These  schools  were  now  everywhere  diffused  in 
countries  inhabited  by  Jews.  The  Jews  were  the  first  nation 
to  insist  on  the  education  of  the  whole  people.  All  were  equal 
before  God,  the  Law  was  laid  on  each  man  and  was  not  the 
secret  of  a  class. 

According  to  Laurie :  "The  course  of  instruction  was  as 
follows:  From  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  year  the  Law  (Pentateuch) 
was  the  only  study,  along  with  writing  and  arithmetic.  From 
the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth  year  the  pupil  was  instructed  in  that 
part  of  the  Talmud  called  Mishnah.  substantially  a  paraphrastic 
development  of  the  Law.  After  the  fifteenth  year  the  Gemara 
was  taught.  Learning  by  rote  was  an  inevitable  and  leading 
characteristic  of  such  teachings.  We  can  easily  understand  that 
instruction  of  this  kind  must  have  infiicted  a  grievous  burden 
on  young  minds  and  crushed  out  all  spontaneity  of  life.  Doubt- 
less this  was  quite  understood  and  intended  l)y  th(>  authorities: 
all  were  to  be  cast  in  one  mould.  Up  to  the  age  of  thirteen  the 
boy  was  not  expected  to  either  know  or  fulfil  the  wliole  law. 
He  then,  at  the  presumed  age  of  puberty,  entered  on  the  rights 
and  duties  of  a  full-grown  Israelite. 

"The  pupil  wrote  on  waxen  tablets  with  a  stylus,  and  when 
advanced,  on  paper  or  parchment  with  a  pen,  like  the  children 
of  the  Romano-Greek  world  generally.  In  the  higher  schools, 
Greek,  mathematics,  and  science  were  taught.     The  sole  aim 


TTTE  TTTSTORY  OF  RELTr,IOl'S  EDUCATION  421 

of  female  education  was  tlie  making  of  the  accomplished  house- 
wife, of  whom  wc  have  a  description  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs. 

"Certain  educational  principles  of  considerable  advance  are 
noted  in  the  schools  that  now  arose,  as:  'He  who  studies  and 
does  not  teach  others  is  like  a  myrtle  in  the  desert';  'If  you  at- 
tempt to  grasp  too  much  at  once,  you  grasp  nothing  at  all' ;  'First 
learn  by  heart  and  then  know' ;  'To  speak  out  loudly  the  sentence 
which  is  being  learned  strengthens  the  same  in  the  memory' ; 
'The  teaclier  should  strive  to  make  the  lesson  agreeable  to  the 
pupils  by  clear  reasons,  as  well  as  by  frequent  repetitions,  until 
they  thoroughly  understand  the  matter,  and  are  enabled  to  recite 
it  with  great  fluency';  'Experience  proves,  it  is  said,  that  chil- 
dren do  not  begin  to  show  much  mental  capacity  as  a  rule  until 
their  tw-elfth  year.'  Further,  it  is  recommended  to  the  teacher 
to  have  pauses  and  periods  in  each  subject.  Again :  'He  w^ho 
studies  hastily  and  crams  too  much  at  once,  his  knowledge  shall 
diminish;  but  he  who  studies  by  degrees  or  step  by  step,  shall 
accumulate  much  wisdom  and  learning.'  In  reference  to  pun- 
ishment, we  read  in  the  Talmud :  'If  thou  art  compelled  to 
punish  a  pupil,  do  it  only  with  gentleness ;  encourage  those  who 
make  progress,  and  let  him  who  does  not,  still  remain  in  the 
class  with  his  schoolfellows,  for  he  will  ultimately  become  at- 
tentive and  vie  wuth  them.'  Again,  there  is  a  saying,  'Children 
should  be  punished  with  one  hand  and  caressed  with  two.' " 

It  is  the  first  example  of  anything  like  a  study  of  Child- 
nature  or  of  Applied  Psychology.  The  Jews  were  essentially 
a  race  of  theological  genius,  just  as  the  Greeks  were  a  race  of 
aesthetic  genius. 

Ilaslett  remarks :  "There  were  no  'middle  ages'  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jewish  people.  Their  education  went  steadily  on 
century  after  century,  and  to  this  day  it  is  still  effective  and  be- 
ing improved  from  time  to  time.  The  Jews  maintained  acad- 
emies and  colleges,  such  as  those  at  Cordova,  Toledo,  Padua, 
Narbonne,  and  Pome,  and  here  higher  religious  instruction  was 
given." 
The  Education  of  India. 

The  Aryans  or  Indo-European  races  comprise  the  Hindoos, 
the  ]\Iedo-Persians,  the  Hellenes,  or  Greeks,  and  the  Italians  or 
Komans.     Among  them  we  find  forms  of  culture  very  different 


422  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

in  their  luiliiro  from  those  manifested  by  the  Turanian  or 
Semitic  races.  The  common  characteristic  of  the  Egyptian, 
Semitic,  and  Chinese  reli<i,i()ns  was  their  externalism.  The 
popular  ro]ic;ion  of  all  these  races  was  an  external  system,  and, 
save  with  the  Hebrews,  was  a  superstition.  The  spiritual  side 
of  religion  was  lost  in  ceremonial ;  all  externalism  tends  to 
superstition,  whatever  its  form  may  be. 

Tjaurie  pictures  it  bcautifiilly:  "Wlion  we  pass  from  Egyp- 
tian and  Semitic  territories  to  the  homo  of  the  Aryan  races,  we 
feel  like  travellers  ascending  from  monotonous  plains  to  a  cool 
and  invigorating  table-land."  Tn  India  we  are  met  by  the  great 
all-influencing  fact  of  caste.  The  earliest  civilization  of  India 
may  be  embraced  within  '.^000  to  1400  B.  C.  The  books  which 
embody  the  intellectual  and  moral  faith  of  the  Hindus  are  the 
Veda\  the  Six  Systems  of  riiilosophy,  the  T^aws  of  Manu,  and 
Buddhism.  We  find  that  through  the  whole  system  of  thought 
there  runs  one  general  idea.  Except  in  so  far  as  that  idea  was 
atheistic,  it  was  pantheistic.  The  highest  moral  aim  of  the 
Hindu  is  rather  the  abnegation  of  life  itself  with  a  view  to  the 
absorption  of  the  individual  into  the  "All,"  the  Nirvana.  God 
is  an  absolute  being,  the  inmost  essence  of  all  things.  Being 
is  quiescent;  it  is  the  negation  of  activity.  Transmigration  is 
a  step  only  in  the  process  of  absorption.  Before  the  All-One, 
the  particular  and  the  individual  are  of  no  account,  merely  pass- 
ing shadows.  What  a  contrast  to  the  Hebrews!  Fatalism  in- 
evitably follows  such  abstractions. 

Wuttke  very  well  says  that  people  of  a  strong  personality 
pray,  "Thy  Xingdom  come" ;  the  Chinese  pray,  "l\ray  thy  king- 
dom remain";  the  Hindus,  "May  that  which  thou  hast  created 
perish";  that  is  to  say,  "May  all  existence  be  swallowed  up  in 
Being." 

Says  Laurie:  "The  end  of  the  higher  education  is  thus 
expressed  in  Manu's  'Book  of  liaws" :  'To  learn  and  to  under- 
stand the  Yedas,  to  practise  pious  mortifications,  to  acquire 
divine  knowledge  of  the  law  and  philosophy,  to  treat  with  ven- 
eration his  natural  and  his  spiritual  father  (i.e..  the  priest), 
these  are  the  chief  duties,  by  means  of  wliich  endless  felicity  is 
attained.'    And  endless  felicity  is  absorption." 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  423 

"The  Chinese/'  write?  Wuttke,  "educate  for  practical  life, 
the  Indians,  for  the  ideal:  those  for  earth,  these  for  heaven  (in- 
dividual blessedness  or  absorption)  ;  those  educate  their  sons  for 
entering  the  world,  these  for  going  out  of  it;  those  educated 
for  citizenship,  these  for  the  priesthood  {i.e.,  the  ideal  life)  ; 
those  for  industrial  activity,  these  for  knowledge;  those  teach 
their  sons  the  laws  of  the  state,  these  teach  them  the  essence  of 
the  godhead;  those  lead  their  sons  into  the  world,  these  lead 
tliem  out  of  the  world  into  themselves;  those  teach  their  chil- 
dren to  earn  and  to  enjoy,  these  to  beg  and  to  renunciate." 

The  ethical  teaching  of  the  Vedic  hymns  was  as  pure, 
though  b}'  no  means  so  exalted,  as  that  of  the  Jewish  prophets. 
If  we  may  trust  Dutt's  Civilizatiox  ix  Ancient  India,  there 
early  arose  (probably  1,000  years  B.  C.)  Brahmanic  settlements 
called  Parishads,  which  approximated  closely  to  what  we  should 
call  collegiate  institutions  of  learning.  There  were  twenty-one 
Brahmans  in  later  times  who  taught  these  schools.  To  these 
centers  men  who  wished  to  devote  their  lives  to  learning  might 
go  and  receive  instruction  in  the  Vedas  and  in  such  law,  astron- 
omy, and  philosoph}'^  as  was  current.  Private  schools  also  ex- 
isted, conducted  by  scholarly  men  at  their  own  venture. 

The  Industrial  Caste  did  not  have  any  special  instruction 
in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  Each  boy  followed  the  oc- 
cupation of  his  parent  and  received  domestic  training  in  that. 

The  lowest  caste  did  the  menial  work  of  the  nation,  and 
learned  nothing.  Women  were  never  taught.  The  power  to 
read  and  write  was  regarded  as  a  reproach  to  them,  the  only 
exception  being  in  regard  to  dancing  girls.  The  female  servants 
of  the  temple  were  instructed  in  reading,  writing,  music,  dancing, 
and  singing,  in  order  to  sing  the  praises  of  the  god  they  served, 
and  to  dance  on  festive  occasions.  The  authorship  of  many 
hymns  and  songs  was  ascribed  to  them. 

The  method  of  instruction  was  oral,  practically  oral  tradi- 
tion, with  the  rote  method  of  learning  the  alphabet  by  heart  and 
some  ten  or  twenty  pages  of  Sanskrit  before  he  knew  a  word  of  it. 

Medo-Persian  Education. 

As  Laurie  shows,  the  Medo-Persians  belonged  to  the  same 
race  as  the  Hindus,  but  developed  along  totally  different  lines. 


424  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

Part  of  this  was  due  to  the  country  in  which  they  lived.  He 
says:  "If  the  physical  characteristics  of  a  home  can  influence  the 
character  of  a  people  we  may  safely  say  that  irre^^ularity  of  sur- 
face and  climatic  variation  will  have  a  potent  effect.  In  a 
country,  too,  much  of  which  called  on  man  for  a  struggle  with 
nature — a  struggle,  however,  by  no  means  hopeless — the  seeds 
of  an  originally  vigorous  and  vivacious  character  would  be  nur- 
tured. Nature  was  not  so  large  and  oppressive  as  in  India,  where 
man  lived  in  a  moist,  torrid,  and  relaxing  climate,  and  was  over- 
powered by  the  mass  and  prodigality  of  natural  forms.  Al- 
though the  physical  circumstances  of  a  nation  are  powerless  to 
make  it,  they  must  largely  modify  its  natural  racial  predispo- 
sition, while  they  profoundly  influence  the  character  of  its  indus- 
trial activities  and  much  of  its  political  history.  But  it  is  the 
breed  of  men  which  occupies  any  portion  of  the  earth's  surface 
that  determines  the  historical  drama  which  is  to  be  there  enacted 
far  more,  probably,  than  any  other  fact.  The  Medo-Persians 
belonged  to  our  own  blood :  that  is  to  say,  they  were  Aryans." 

Caste  was  not  recognised  in  Persia,  save  in  the  hereditary 
Magian  Priesthood.  Laurie  writes :  "Every  one,  even  the  mean- 
est, was  kept  conscious  of  the  national  unity  and  felt  himself  to 
have  a  share  in  the  national  activity.  This  community  of  feeling 
was  strong;  for  example,  in  his  prayers  when  offering  sacri- 
fices the  Persian  asked  blessings  on  the  Persian  people  gener- 
ally, and  on  himself  only  as  included  in  the  nation.  The  Per- 
sians were,  as  compared  with  the  other  Oriental  races,  virtually 
a  free  people,  though  under  a  despotic  form  of  government." 
There  was  a  marvellous  freshness  and  ability  of  mind  manifest 
among  them.  A  high  spirit  and  lovable  temper  were  conspicu- 
ous in  marked  contrast  to  all  the  preceding  races  of  which  we 
have  studied.  We  find  in  the  Persian  a  Hellenic  grace  of  cour- 
tesy which  charms  us. 

Their  highest  form  of  religion  was  the  Mazdeism  or  Zor- 
oastrianism.  Though  the  mass  of  the  people  never  rose  to  a 
conception  of  its  principles,  it  was  the  religion  of  the  leading 
families.  Its  fundamental  idea  was  that  a  pure  One  Spirit  was 
creator  and  sustainer  of  all.  The  conception  resembled  the 
higher  forms  of  Judaism.  The  sacred  writings  arc  known  as 
the  Zend-Avesta. 


TIIK  lll.sToi;^    ol'  KKLfOrOUS  EDrcATIOX  425 

"The  Persian  rt'li<:jion/"  .says  Ilegcl,  "is  the  religion  of  light. 
The  source  of  light  i.s  not  identified  with  nature  as  one  with  it, 
hut  is  rather  regarded  as  that  which  creates  and  vitalizes.  In 
ils  human  mental  relations  this  light  is  wisdom,  goodness,  vir- 
tue, inirity,  truth;  in  its  physical  relations  it  is  that  which 
vitalizes  and  makes  beautiful — physical  light — the  light  of  the 
sun,  which  is  still  worshipped  by  the  Par.sees,  the  modern  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Zend  religion,  as  the  symbol  of  intellectual  and 
the  source  of  physical  light.'' 

Laurie  writes:  "We  see  in  lliis  religion  an  expression  of 
the  highest  type  of  Persian  thought  which  could  not  fail  to 
react  on  the  individual  life  powerfully.  The  doctrine  of  personal 
immortality  was  taught.  After  death  the  wicked  fall  into  the 
underworld,  there  to  be  tormented  by  evil  spirits;  the  good  are 
received  into  the  Abode  of  Song,  the  dwelling  place  of  Ormazd 
and  the  saints.  IJut  a  day  of  renovation  even  for  the  wicked 
will  come,  when  by  the  discipline  of  fire,  all  creatures  will  be 
refined.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  even  a  religion  as  pure  as 
this  in  conception  might  degenerate  into  a  worship  of  the  ele- 
ments, or  rather  retain  an  ancient  element  worship  and  spirit 
worship  as  a  parallel  and  popular  system." 

They  had  no  images  of  gods,  no  temples,  no  altars,  and 
considered  the  use  of  them  a  sign  of  folly.  They  were  accus- 
tomed to  ascend  the  loftiest  mountains  and  there  offer  sacrifice. 
But  the  sacrificer  was  not  allowed  to  pray  for  blessings  on  him- 
self alone,  but  must  include  the  king  and  the  whole  Persian 
people. 

In  his  book  upon  Pre-Christian  Education  Laurie  de- 
clares :  "The  boys  of  the  higher  classes  were  brought  up  together 
under  men  of  gravity  and  reputation  at  the  court  of  the  great 
king,  and  also  at  the  lesser  courts  of  the  great  nobles  and  pro- 
vincial governors.  In  these  central  and  departmental  court- 
schools  they  were  trained  in  shooting  with  the  bow,  riding,  the 
use  of  the  javelin,  and  other  military  exercises,  and  in  the  course 
of  this  instruction  great  attention  was  paid  to  their  education 
in  truthfulness  and  self-control.  The  story  of  noble  deeds  was 
conveyed  through  the  national  traditions.  The  young  men  were 
rendered  hardy  by  the  severity  of  their  physical  exercise.     We 


426  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

may  perhaps  sec  in  such  schools  an  anticipation  of  the  mediaeval 
schools  of  chivalr}'.'' 

We  know  very  little  of  the  educational  methods  of  the  Per- 
sians. There  was  no  educational  system  as  such.  What  educa- 
tion there  was.  was  given  in  the  family  life  until  the  fifth  year, 
when,  Herodotus  tells  us,  public  instruction  of  boys  began  which 
was  confined  to  the  upper  and  wealthier  classes.  We  cannot 
accept  as  a  literal  statement  Xenophon's  Cyropaedia.  Little 
book  learning  was  imparted.  The  highest  education  was  for  the 
hereditary  Magian  priesthood  alone,  but  even  this  did  not  seem 
to  have  embraced  much  more  that  the  traditionary  religious 
writings. 

The  significance  of  Persian  life  and  education  lies  in  the 
combination  of  a  free  personality  with  an  intense  national  feel- 
ing. Man  became  a  personal  factor  in  the  world  order.  Persia 
marks  the  transition  from  the  Semitic  Oriental  to  the  Hellenic 
type  of  life. 

Greek   Education. 

There  is  a  great  contrast  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Orien- 
tals. The  Greeks  showed  a  real  progress,  while  the  Orientals  did 
not.  Chinese  Education  was  dominated  by  obedience,  Egyptian 
Education  was  dominated  by  the  Priesthood.  Indian  Educa- 
tion was  dominated  by  Caste.  Persian  Education  was  dominated 
by  Government.  Hebrew  Education  was  dominated  by  Spiritual 
Ideals  (Theosophy  in  the  ideal  sense).  Greek  Education  was 
dominated  by  the  City-state,  in  which  nobility,  worth,  and  vir- 
tue were  united.  They  recognized  two  types  of  virtue,  the  sol- 
dier with  efficiency  and  strength,  the  councillor  with  acuteness. 
Greek  education  presents  certain  stages  or  types  of  evolution. 

(a)  Dorian  or  Spartan  Education. 

Its  aim  was  to  develop  the  ideal  man  of  use  to  the  small 
city-state.  Consequently  the  subject-matter  of  Education  was 
confined  to  gymnastics,  music,  dancing,  singing,  etc.  There  was 
little  reading  or  writing  and  no  literature. 

(&)  Athenian  Education. 

The  Athenians  placed  more  emphasis  on  the  individual. 
They  aimed  to  prepare  for  Peace  by  the  triumphs  of  Wisdom. 
The  Athenians  paid  more  attention  to  health  and  grace  than  to 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  427 

mere  har(liiK\-;s.  The  Spartans  educated  only  part  of  the  man,  the 
moral  and  physical;  the  Athenians  the  whole  man,  moral,  phy- 
sical, and  intellectual.  The  Symposium  at  Athens  took  the  place 
of  the  Barracks  at  Sparta.  Every  Athenian  citizen  was  an 
office  holder,  every  Spartan  citizen  a  soldier.  The  ideal  was 
distinctly  higher. 

(c)  New  Greek  Education,  in  the  middle  of  the  Fifth  Cen- 
tury to  the  Middle  of  the  Second  Century,  B.  C. 

Worth  was  then  based,  not  on  birth,  but  on  ability  to  per- 
form civic  duties,  even  freedom  rose  into  power.  The  Commer- 
cial class  was  developed.  Religious  ideas  were  altered,  for  le- 
gendary gods  broke  down  among  the  learned  under  the  spirit  of 
freedom  of  thought  and  criticism.  The  rejection  of  the  old 
religion  at  first  resulted  in  a  nation  of  sceptics  and  atheists. 
Ethical  ideals  were  consequently  altered;  the  religion  of  the 
family  disappeared;  corruption  and  impurity  crept  in;  Greek 
philosophy  and  literature  changed;  comedy  was  substituted  for 
tragedy  and  drama.  Two  demands  were  now  insistent:  first  a 
more  versatile  type  of  man  was  needed,  one  who  could  address 
the  Assembly  and  win  even  unjust  causes.  Athens  changed 
from  a  nation  of  doers  to  a  nation  of  talkers.  The  rhetorician 
and  dialectician  arose.  Second,  all  this  demanded  a  higher  in- 
tellectual training  and  greater  freedom  for  the  individual,  es- 
pecially in  the  use  of  his  leisure  time. 

The  Sophist  supplied  this  twofold  demand.  Socrates  was  a 
typical  Sophist  of  the  time.  The  study  of  his  life  and  writings 
is  well-nigh  essential  to  the  wise  teacher  of  to-day.  His  defini- 
tion of  the  aim  of  education  was  wisdom,  both  universal  and  in- 
dividual. It  was  his  endeavor  to  change  partial  truths  into 
whole  truths.  His  fundamental  doctrine  was  that  knowledge  is 
virtue,  that  everyone  would  act  virtuously  with  knowledge.  This, 
of  course,  was  a  defect  in  his  teaching,  for  knowledge  does  not 
furnish  motive.  His  dialectic  process  to  furnish  men  this  knowl- 
edge was  an  ideal  catechetical  method. 

Plato  followed  Socrates,  agreeing  with  him  and  enlarging 
upon  his  ideals.  Plato  endeavored  to  reform  Greek  life  in  his 
attempt  to  found  "the  Republic." 

{d)   The  Hellenistic  Education. 

The  t}'pical  leader  of  this  period  was  Aristotle. 


428  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

His  general  inlliujncc  was  similar  to  Plato's,  but  he  differed 
in  the  general  |)iir|)ose  of  education.  The  aim  of  the  individual 
was  happiness,  to  him,  and  happiness  equalled  virtue,  and  thus 
equalled  character.  In  subject-matter  the  Hellenistic  education 
aimed  to  have  dialectics,  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy  (this 
last  culminating  in  astrology,  not  in  philosophy)  form  the  in- 
tellectual basis. 
Roman  Education. 

Meanwhile  Rome  had  been  rising  into  power,  and  its  type 
of  education  was  a  distinct  contribution  to  development.  The 
Greeks  put  value  on  tliis  life,  not  on  the  future.  Athens  failed 
because  it  had  no  means  of  working  out  its  ideals.  The  Honums 
were  more  practical,  but  with  fewer  ideals.  They  borrowed  what 
ideals  they  had  from  the  Greeks,  and  supplied  the  means  them- 
selves. Where  Rome  failed,  she  failed  because  she  had  no  defi- 
nite purpose.  The  standard  with  the  Greeks  was  one  of  har- 
mony and  proportion,  an  intellectually  aesthetic  one;  that  of 
Rome  was  elhciency,  the  utilitarian  or  practical  form.  Rome 
furnished  Christianity  an  institution  in  the  Church,  which,  by 
its  law  and  organization  could  last.  Jts  contribution  was  means, 
not  purposes  or  aims. 

In  the  early  period  before  the  Grecian  influence  changed 
Rome,  the  aim  of  education  was  but  a  training  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  state,  and  "duty"  was  the  Shibboleth.  The  traits 
of  the  typical  man  were  piety  (pielns),  modesty  (puder),  man- 
liness (constantia) ,  courage  (virtus),  earnestness  (gravitas), 
prudence  (prudentm) ,  honesty  (honestas),  justice  (justitia)  ; 
these  ideals  were  worked  out  simply  by  doing.  It  was  a  train- 
ing, but  not  like  the  Greek  training,  which  was  also  culture. 
The  aim  was  the  center,  in  contrast  to  the  Greeks,  where  it  was  of 
slight  account.  Biography  took  a  high  rank  with  Rome  as  shown 
by  the  Lives  of  Plutarch.  Up  to  three  hundred  B.  C.  some 
literary  training  was  given,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  but 
all  elementary.  Hymns,  songs,  and  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables  were  taught,  corresponding  to  the  Laws  of  Lycurgus  in 
Greece.  From  300  to  148  B.  C.  we  find  the  Ludi  or  private 
Primary  Schools.  In  260  we  find  the  Grammaticus,  or  Gram- 
mar or  Secondary  Schools.  Greek  civilization  now  came  in. 
Carvilius  at  that  date  used  and  taught  Greek  in  Rome. 


TTIK  IHSTOIJV  OF  nEIJCTOT'S  EDFfATION  420 

In  the  next  period,  rroiii  14.S  B.C.  to  llio  Doniinance  of 
Circck  inlhu'iicc,  we  see  four  types  of  schools:  tlie  priinarv,  the 
graiiiinar,  the  rhetorical,  and  the  university;  all  of  them  with  a 
large  advance  in  intellectual  education.  Latin  and  Greek 
oratory,  medicine,  jurispinidence,  and  philosophy  were  all  taught. 
A  di'tinitc  curriculum  was  set  loilh;  lihrarics  were  established, 
(^uintilian  was  the  leader  in  Rome,  as  Socrates  was  among  the 
(j  reeks. 

For  a  century  after  (^uintilian  the  higli  excellence  of  [{onian 
education  remained,  from  the  Third  to  the  Fourth  Centuries. 
There  w'as  no  declination  of  the  system  at  first.  Schools  spread 
and  increased,  hut  when  the  Sixth  Century  arrived  their  spirit 
was  entirely  gone,  and  their  inlluence  disappeared  when  Justin- 
ian overthrew  the  University  of  Athens.  Law  and  medicine  kept 
on,  however. 

The  Early  Christian  Schools. 

The  Christian  Church  was  formed  at  first  from  memhers 
or  attendants  of  the  Jewish  Synagogues.  The  Synagogues,  in 
some  instances,  developed  into  Christian  Churches.  I)(\'in  Mil- 
man  says  that  the  Church  was  almost  universally  formed,  in  a 
sense,  from  a  Jewish  Synagogue.  The  Jewish  Synagogue  was 
not  a  place  of  religious  instruction,  it  was  more  a  place  of  wor- 
ship. Yet  almost  all  the  synagogues  had  some  kind  of  a  school 
in  connection  with  them.  From  the  beginning  the  Christian 
Church  taught  the  Scriptures  and  trained  teachers  for  its  work. 
The  teaching  was  oral,  consisting  chietly  of  explanations  of  the 
New  Testament  and  Gospels.  A  distinct  order  of  teachers  ex- 
isted in  the  early  Church.  Christianity  reacted  upon  both 
Greek  and  Koman  education.  It  represented  the  union  of  these 
two  types,  the  individual  and  the  citizen  joined.  Its  ideal  was 
the  individual's  freedom,  but  also  it  bound  him  to  his  fellows 
by  the  moral  nature  of  man.  It  was  the  orientation  of  the  per- 
sonality of  the  individual  to  himself  and  to  others.  Christian- 
ity was  essentially  altruistic.  Hence  it  gave  a  content  to  the 
Greek  ideal  of  the  individual.  The  good,  the  virtuous  before  had 
been  but  an  abstraction.  These  ideals  now  became  personal  and 
concrete.  A  concrete  person  was  set  up  as  a  type  of  the  practical 
life,  capable  of  being  followed  and  copied.    Some  time,  however, 


430  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

passed  before  the  Christian  schools  were  established  as  a  separate 
institution.  But  before  the  end  of  the  First  Century  classes 
and  Catechetical  schools  in  the  Christian  Religion  were  in  exist- 
ence. Children  were  brought  into  Church  relations  as  Catechu- 
mens at  the  age  of  seven.  The  instruction  of  the  young  in  doc- 
trine became  the  duty  of  every  Church,  as  the  writings  of 
Clement,  Origen,  and  Augustine  show.  Dr.  Salmond  urges  that 
the  famous  Alexandrian  School  was  the  result  of  the  learning 
and  piety  of  Apollos.  Tertullian,  who  flourished  about  the  lat- 
ter half  of  the  Second  Century,  refers  to  these  schools  as  well 
established.  These  schools  for  catechumens  were  usually  held 
in  the  Baptistery  or  Vestry  of  the  Church.  Their  plan  Avas 
something  after  the  synagogue  schools,  but  an  improvement  over 
them,  being  graded  according  to  proficiency.  Many  of  the 
schools  taught  sacred  biography,  sacred  history,  Jewish  customs, 
memorizing  of  Scripture  passages  and  Biblical  Doctrines — God, 
Sin,  Regeneration,  Resurrection,  and  the  life  beyond.  The  text 
books  used  were  the  Bible,  Dialogues,  Jewish  History,  and  Re- 
ligious Poetry. 

Education  from  the  Fourth  to  the  Thirteenth  Centuries:    Mediaeval 
Education. 

Christianity  during  this  period  paid  little  or  no  attention 
to  the  intellectual  life  for  the  following  manifest  reasons: 

The  aim  of  the  Christian  Church  was  to  establish  the 
Faith ;  that  Faith  was  in  a  Person,  and  the  modeling  of  life  on 
Him  needed,  in  itself,  no  intellectual  element.  The  Christians 
believed  in  the  immediate  coming  of  Christ  and  for  this  reason, 
also,  had  little  interest  in  education.  The  persecutions  and 
exiles  of  the  early  Christians  made  education  hard  to  foster. 

Again,  the  Christian  Church  was  directed  to  the  conversion 
of  the  lower  classes,  and  it  is  notorious  that  the  masses  have 
little  interest  in  education.  They  identify  education  with  cul- 
ture and  culture  with  oppression  of  the  classes  below. 

By  the  Fourth  Century  Christianity  was  preached  to  the 
Barbarians,  and  by  the  Sixth  Century  the  German  and  Teutonic 
people  controlled  the  Church  and  they  in  turn  cared  naught  for 
education.     The  Western  Church  practically  accepted  the  pro- 


TIIK  mSTOUY  OF  KELIGIUUS  EDUCATION  4:U 

(luction  of  Greek  life,  the  dogma  and  intellectual  side  of  the 
East.  The  Eastern  Church  kept  up  the  discussion  of  dogma. 
Hence  heresies  arose  in  the  East,  not  in  the  West.  Xot  until 
the  Eleventh  Century  was  there  a  wide  intellectual  life  in  the 
West.  Hence  the  content  of  Education  during  this  period  was 
a  little  more  concrete,  though  very  limited.  Greek  influence 
still  controlled  in  tlieology  and  philosophy.  By  300  A.  D.  Chris- 
tianity became  a  philosoph)%  and  by  325  a  metaphysical  system. 
Catechetical  instruction  received  little  attention  during  this 
period.  Missionary  work  was  done  in  a  lump,  with  attempts  to 
convert  whole  nations  at  one  sweep,  with  the  nation's  will  or 
without  its  will.  Cross  or  sword,  preaching  or  compulsion,  no 
matter  the  means,  the  end  must  be  gained.  The  fire  of  religious 
zeal  for  the  instruction  of  children  was  kept  alive,  however,  by 
a  number  of  small  parties  within  the  Church. 

In  Bohemia  there  seemed  to  be  a  system  of  training  on  the 
part  of  the  Catechumenate  which  continued  through  the  mid- 
dle ages.  In  the  Ninth  Century  Charlemagne  carried  on  his 
reformatory  work  along  the  line  of  religious  instruction.  When 
the  second  Council  of  Chalons  met  in  813,  a  decree  was  posted 
ordering  Bishops  to  establish  schools  in  their  dioceses,  but 
enough  teachers  could  not  be  found.  About  this  time  Ottfried 
wrote  his  Catechism,  as  a  guide  for  the  young. 

Two  kinds  of  schools  arose  during  these  ages,  the  Cathedral 
schools,  which  were  probably  developed  during  the  Carolingian 
Period,  and  the  Monastic  Schools,  the  former  being  taught  by 
the  secular  and  the  latter  by  the  monastic  clergy.  After  the 
Sixth  Century,  the  old  Roman  imperial  schools  disappeared. 
Bishops  controlled  the  cities  and  were  chiefly  warriors. 

The  Conventual  or  Monastic  Schools  that  originated  about 
the  Sixth  Century  and  continued  to  the  Reformation,  afforded 
opportunity  for  young  men  to  secure  a  fairly  good  education. 
The  Monastic  movement  took  rapid  and  strong  hold  upon  the 
people.  Monasteries  were  introduced  into  the  East  in  335  A.  D. 
by  St.  Anthony.  They  were  carried  from  Egypt  to  Greece  by. 
S.  Basil,  and  later  to  Rome;  and  by  the  end  of  the  Fourth 
Century  to  Gaul,  spreading  from  Gaul  to  Ireland  and  England. 
IVIonasticism  was  hostile  in  one  way  to  the  strong  intellectual 
life.     It  was  dominated  by  the  aesthetic  idea  which  considered 


432  KKI.KilOUS    EDUCATION 

all  matter  evil.  It  was  opposed  to  pleasure,  and,  as  study  was 
pleasure,  it  was  a  sin.  It  preached  the  renunciation  of  the  world 
and  what  it  had  to  olTer,  so  that  there  was  little  art  and  litera- 
ture during  this  period.  It  stood  for  denial  of  the  spirit  of 
inquiry.  T Fence  all  formal  investigation  was  stopped.  On  the 
other  hand,  Monasticisni  helped  personal  education.  Where  S. 
Benedict  was  in  the  West,  Community  life  was  in  vogue,  not  the 
aesthetic.  Hence  a  great  multiplication  of  manuscripts  ensued. 
This  demanded  education  in  ihe  monasteries.  The  character 
of  the  monastic  learning  consisted  in  reading  of  the  Scriptures 
and  the  Fathers,  the  writing  and  copying  of  manuscripts,  the 
keeping  of  accounts  and  annals,  singing  in  the  Church  service, 
and  enough  arithmetic  for  the  keeping  of  Church  Calendars, 
Easter,  etc.  From  the  monasteries  came  all  the  education  that 
there  was.  The  great  mass  of  the  people  had  no  education 
at  all. 

In  the  Carolingian  Period  there  were  two  kinds  of  Monastic 
schools.  One  was  for  the  Internes,  that  is,  those  who  were 
studying  for  the  monastic  ministry;  the  other  was  for  the 
Externes,  that  is,  those  who  were  studying  for  the  regular,  or 
secular,  ministry.  All  knowledge  was  now  summed  up  in  the 
study  of  the  liberal  arts,  the  Trivium  and  the  Quadrivium. 
The  Trivium  included  Dialectics,  Ehetoric,  and  Grammar;  the 
Quadrivium  included  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  Astronomy,  and 
Music. 

During  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  Centuries  only  grammar 
had  been  taught  from  the  Trivium,  the  other  two  had  been 
neglected.  Dialectics  was  not  revived  until  the  Tenth  Century. 
Of  the  Quadrivium,  only  Arithmetic  and  Music  had  been  taught. 

The  early  Christian  schools  included  schools  for  Cate- 
chumens, the  converts  of  the  early  Church  who  were  under 
training;  the  Catechetical  schools,  those  for  the  ministry;  and 
in  the  East  the  Cathedral  schools,  which  in  the  West  corre- 
sponded to  the  Bishops'  schools.  It  is  important  to  note  this 
period  of  education,  from  the  Sixth  to  the  Ninth  Centuries,  and 
the  marked  hostility  which  had  arisen  to  the  intellectual  life. 
The  only  spark  that  had  been  left  was  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland. 


mi;  HISTORY  ok  religious  education  r.v.i 

The  Three  Renaissances. 

Tlu'  lu'iiiiissancc  iiioaiis  tlic  new  l)irlh  or  revival  of  learn- 
ing. There  were  three  of  these  epochs  or  waves,  followed  in 
each  case  hy  a  decline. 

The  First  Revival,  Carolingian,  went  hack  to  the  ideas  of 
the  Grneco-Roman  Period. 

llie  Second  Revival  was  the  formation  of  the  educational 
institution  of  the  University  and  the  recovery  of  the  works  of 
Aristotle. 

The  Third  Revival  was  the  recovery  of  the  classical  litera- 
ture. 

The  First  Renaissance  was  in  the  Ninth  Centur}-;  the  Sec- 
ond in  the  Eleventh  Century,  and  the  Third  in  the  Fourteenth 
and  Fifteenth  Centuries.  This  last,  of  which  we  shall  speak 
later  on,  was  the  so-called  Humanistic  Revival. 

The  First  Eenaissance,  Carolingian,  under  Charle- 
magne and  Alcuin,  w^e  have  already  noted.  Alcuin  was  a  Saxon, 
who  had  heen  educated  in  Great  Britain  under  the  Venerable 
Bede  and  was  Master  of  the  Cathedral  of  York.  At  the  request 
of  Karl,  he  came  to  France  to  organize  the  schools  in  the  Reform- 
ation of  the  great  Emperor.  Karl  issued  his  Capitulary  in  787, 
the  Magna  Charta  of  Education.  It  had  a  direct  cifect  upon 
the  monastic  schools,  for  they  now  rose  to  the  rank  of  Court 
Schools,  intended  for  the  royal  family  and  used  at  court.  The 
Monastic  Schools  themselves  spread  also  as  a  result,  and  on  these 
in  turn  rose  up  the  Cathedral  Schools,  so  that  the  First  Renais- 
sance of  the  Ninth  Century  was  the  direct  outcome  of  the  work 
of  Charlemagne  the  latter  part  of  the  Eighth  Century. 

The  Period  Suhsequent  to  Alcuin. — Two  and  a  haK  cen- 
turies came  practically  between  the  First  and  the  Second  Renais- 
sance. In  some  places  the  ideas  of  Karl  and  Alcuin  were  still 
kept.  Their  pupils  were  scattered  through  France  and  Europe. 
Rabanus  ]\[aurus.  Archbishop  of  Meintz  and  Duns  Scotus,  de- 
veloped Dialectics  again,  the  former  in  France,  the  latter  in 
Germany,  under  Charles  the  Bald. 

Side  by  side  with  the  education  of  the  Cloister  and  the 
Cathedral  sprang  up  the  Chivalric  education  of  the  Courts. 
This  was  the  education  of  the  higher  classes  during  the  Eighth 
to  the  Fourteenth  Centuries.     It  was  an  age  of  idealism,  the  per- 


434  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

sonification  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  While  the  monastic 
controlled  the  masses,  the  chivalrie  guided  the  Court.  The 
ideals  of  Chivalry  were  Bravery,  Honor,  Personal  Independence, 
Generosity,  Fidelity  to  Agreements,  Humility,  and  Obedience 
to  Elders. 

Different  periods  for  the  education  of  the  young  boy  were 
mapped  out.  From  seven  to  fourteen  he  was  a  page,  from  four- 
teen to  twenty-one,  a  squire.  He  owed  personal  service  to  a 
lord  in  some  other  family  than  his  own.  He  learned  the  dignity 
of  obedience  and  the  rudiments  of  war  (through  games  and 
sports  in  mimic  warfare)  ;  he  learned  love  and  courtesy  (from 
the  minstrels  and  the  women  around)  ;  music  and  chess  (through 
actual  practice),  and  religion  (from  the  minstrels  and  priests). 

The  Second  Eeistaissance,  or  the  Scholastic  Revival,  be- 
gan in  the  Eleventh  Century  and  culminated  in  the  Thirteenth 
and  expired  towards  the  Fifteenth.  Scholasticism  grew  out  of 
a  change  of  emphasis  in  the  work  of  the  monastic  schools.  As 
the  Classics  came  in,  the  danger  arose  of  turning  men  away  from 
the  Faith,  so  the  third  part  of  the  Trivium,  Dialectics,  was 
chosen  to  offset  this  danger.  The  Scholastic  Method  of  thought 
was  developed  as  the  means  of  defense.  Much  of  the  meta- 
physics handed  down  to  modern  times  grew  up  out  of  this  addi- 
tion. A  purely  intellectual  interest  centered  around  the  terms 
"Realism"  and  "Nominalism."     The  educational  results  were: 

(a)  Revived  interest  in  intellectual  life,  thought  life  itself, 
rather  than  the  content.  It  was  the  application  of  logic  to  the 
truths  already  fully  developed.  It  was  the  denial  of  all  inde- 
pendence of  thought.  Men  grouped  around  the  great  teachers  to 
learn  Logic  and  Dialectics.  From  this  grouping  grew  up  the 
universities. 

(&)  Universities. — The  Universities  were  due  to  the  char- 
acter of  this  Century.  The  unrest  of  the  past  had  become  set- 
tled. The  anticipation  of  the  Millennium  was  over.  Men  had 
thought  the  end  of  the  world  was  to  come  when  the  year  1000 
was  reached.  People  now  had  time  for  intellectual  activity. 
The  Crusades  deepened  men's  thoughts.  Inquiry  and  investiga- 
tion had  been  stimulated.  Chivalry  and  Feudalism  had  changed 
social  life.     Europe  now  came  into  contact  with  the  Saracens 


THE  IHSTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  435 

and  their  captivated  Greek  learning.  The  Monastic  and  Cathe- 
dral schools  became  popular. 

Great  numbers  of  students  came,  too  many  to  live  in  clois- 
ters, most  of  them  not  intending  to  be  priests.  Hence  they 
could  not  be  controlled  easily.  Another  element  that  caused 
the  formation  of  the  universities  was  that  there  had  been  grouped 
around  the  schools  of  Theology  and  IJcligion  students  who  sought 
knowledge  of  Canon  and  Civil  Law,  Medicine,  Science,  and 
Philosophy.  Students  from  the  Mediterranean  came  into  con- 
tact with  Greek  life  and  literature.  The  final  cause  was  the  gen- 
eral tendency  then  existing  towards  organization.  Scholars 
drawn  to  certain  teachers  by  their  reputation  formed  a  "Studium 
Generale,"  not  a  place  where  all  subjects  were  taught,  but  where 
teaching  was  open  to  all  and  in  public.  Taking  their  cue  from 
the  Feudal  Trade  Guilds,  where  individuals  were  banded  to  main- 
tain their  rights,  each  organization  was  called  a  Universitas  or 
Corporation.  The  students  of  France  organized  in  a  similar 
federation.  Bologna  arranged  for  a  uniform  tuition,  times  of 
lectures,  etc.  Charters  were  granted  by  Pope  and  Emperors. 
The  oldest  University  was  Salerno,  1060,  in  Italy,  though  it 
was  never  chartered.  In  1224  the  Emperor  Frederick  incor- 
porated it  into  the  University  of  Naples.  Bologna  was  the  sec- 
ond. In  the  next  three  centuries  seventy-five  new  ones  were 
set  up. 

Difference  between  the  University  and  the  old  Ro- 
man School. — The  Monastic  Schools  studied  merely  the 
Trivium,  while  the  University  admitted  the  Quadrivium  as  well. 
The  School  was  supervised  by  local  monasteries;  the  University 
by  the  Pope  or  Emperor,  though  autonomous  in  control.  The 
University  students  under  the  Studium  Generale  were  organized 
into  nations  similar  to  the  Guilds  in  the  Trades.  There  were 
no  college  buildings  at  first.  Masters  lectured  in  their  own 
rooms. 

The  most  famous  of  the  Universities  was  the  University  of 
Paris,  whose  degrees  were  accepted  anywhere.  These  degrees 
were  all  the  same  at  first.  Doctor,  ^Master,  Bachelor  being  equal. 
Distinctions  grew  up  later.  There  were  from  ten  thousand  to 
thirty  thousand  such  students  in  Paris  from  all  over  the  Empire. 
The  University  of  Paris  was  formed  into  four  Nations:  the 


436  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

French,  the  Normans,  the  English  and  the  Germans,  and  the 
Pickards.  At  Bologna  there  were  as  many  as  eighteen  Nations. 
The  four  Nations  elected  a  Rector,  who  became  head  of  the 
University.  The  Faculty  of  Arts  had  almost  all  the  say.  At 
first  the  term  "Faculty"  meant  the  department  of  knowledge  or 
science.  Later  it  was  transferred  from  the  study  to  tlie  teachers 
of  it.  The  four  great  Faculties  were  Theology,  Civil  Law, 
Canon  Law,  and  Medicine,  the  first  being  the  Arts.  The  col- 
lege meant  simply  the  monasteries  or  rooms  for  indigent  students 
established  by  the  monks,  especially  by  the  Friars.  These  rooms 
were  called  "Colleges"  or  "Hospitals."  Soon  lectures  were  held 
in  these  buildings,  and  by  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  all 
ordinary  and  extraordinary  lectures  were  given  in  the  Colleges. 
Most  students  received  their  B.A.  at  fourteen. 

Out  of  a  quarrel  that  arose  in  the  Tliirteenth  Century  in 
the  University  of  Paris,  half  the  population  of  Paris,  which  was 
composed  of  masters  and  students,  revolted  and  went  to  Oxford, 
establishing  the  famous  University  of  Oxford. 

The  Content  and  Method  of  the  University  Educa- 
tion OF  this  Period. — The  means  wore  influenced  by  the  ab- 
sence of  books,  and  yet  were  bookisli  in  character.  The  student 
had  to  make  his  own  text  book  by  dictation  and  comments.  Tlie 
teacher  dictated  and  later  commented  after  absolute  committal 
to  memory.  Each  word  of  the  sentence  was  criticised.  All  texts 
in  Theology  were  analyzed  in  this  same  way. 

The  Aristotelian  Method  of  Analysis  and  interpretation  was 
developed,  which  is  still  seen  in  the  "Wranglers"  of  Enghuul 
to-day.  The  Schools  of  Art  and  Philosophy  dealt  wholly  with 
the  Trivium,  especially  logic.  There  was  a  certain  amount  of 
grammar,  but  not  much.  In  Law,  the  Code  of  Justinian  was 
used.  In  Medicine,  the  works  of  the  Arabian  philosophers  and 
Greek  physicians.     All  of  this  was  very  meagre. 

The  power  of  the  Universities,  however,  was  very  great. 
They  took  a  place  in  political  life.  The  University  of  Paris  was 
called  on  to  settle  disputes,  as  the  Church  Councils  had  been  of 
old.  The  Third  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation  grew  out  of 
the  University.  The  Universities  had  prepared  men  for  lead- 
ership and  were  the  homes  of  the  reformers.     This  Third  Renais- 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDLX'ATION  4:57 

sance  was  coterminous   with   tlu'    Keforination,   which   we   will 
consider  in  our  next  chapter. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  Compare    the    evolutionary    advances    shown    in    the    Educational 

Ideals  of  China,   Egj'pt,   Babylonia,   Assyria,   Phoenicia,   and   the 
Hebrews. 

2.  What  were  three  great  Periods  of  Hebrew  Education  to  the  Hirth 

of  Christ? 

3.  What  advance  did  each  make? 

4.  What  can  you  say  of  the  Rabbinical  Schools?    What  of  the  Schools 

since  then  ? 

5.  Compare  the  ideals  of  India  with  the  Hebrews. 

6.  In  what  points  was  Persian  Education  strong?    In  what  weak? 

7.  Discuss  and  compare  the  Spartiin,  Athenian,  New  Greek,  and  Hellen- 

istic Ideals  of  Education. 

8.  Discuss    Roman     Education     (o)     previous    to    Grecian    Influence; 

(b)    subsequent,   when   Greece    re-acted   upon    it;     (c)    under    the 
Influence  of  Christianity. 

9.  Outline    the    Early    Christian    Schools,     (a)     To    the    Fourth    Cen- 

tury;   (b)   Under  Mediaeval  Education. 

10.  What  were   (a)  the  Periods  and   (b)   the  Key  Words  of  each  of  the 

Three  Revivals? 

11.  Distinguish  the  Cathedral,  the  Bishops,  the  Monastic   (Conventual), 

and  the  Chivalric  Schools. 

12.  What  contribution  did  the  Second  Renaissance  make  to  Education? 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE    HISTORY   OF    RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION.— Continued. 

FROM  THE  THIRD  RENAISSANCE  TO  THE  PRESENT. 

*Pre-Ciikistian  Kdix'ation.     Laurie.     Index. 

Tkxt-Book  in  TiiK  IIi-sTOKY  OF  EDUCATION.    Moiiroe.     See  Index. 

♦The  I'EDAGOGiCAL  Bible  School.     UaMett.     Chap.  I. 

The  Modern  Sunday  School.     Cope.     Chap.  II. 

♦The  Rise  and  Early  Institution  op  Universities.    Laurie.    See  Index. 

The  Holy  Koman  Empire,     liryce. 

♦Educational  Reformers.     Quick. 

I'ESTALOZZi.     De  Quimps. 

The  Education  of  Man.    Frochel. 

German  Higher  Schools.     Russell. 

Symbolic  Education.     Blow. 

Pedagogics  ok  the  Kindergarten.     Frochel. 

Froebel's  Educational  Laws.     Hughes. 

Education  of  Man.     Frochel. 

Montaigne's  Education  of  Children.     Rector. 

Herbart's  Introductory  Works.     Eckoff. 

Education  in  the  United  States.     Boone. 

Emile.      Rousseau. 

The  Origin  of  the  Third   Revival. 

For  at  least  one  hundred  years  before  the  Reformation 
broke  out,  there  was  a  widespread  feeling  of  the  need  of  a  better 
religious  instruction  for  all  the  people.  The  Third  Revival, 
however,  came  directly  from  the  growth  of  intellectual  power. 
As  the  University  gave  the  home  for  the  Intellectual  Life,  so  the 
Renaissance  gave  it  a  new  Spirit.  Contact  with  the  East 
brought  a  desire  for  the  knowledge  of  the  East.  New  nations 
again  gave  a  new  motive  thought  of  patriotism,  which  tended  to 
Culture  and  Education.  Inventions  and  discoveries  that  sprang 
into  being  tended  to  overthrow  Authority,  and  the  Individual 
came  to  have  some  rights  for  himself. 

The  Printing  Press  broke  down  the  exclusiveness  of  Educa- 
tion. Intellectual  life  could  now  be  pursued  by  books,  and  hence 
outside  of  the  University.  New  vernacular  languages  were 
formulated,  and  the  common  people  could  now,  for  the  first 


11  IK  mSTDIlY  OF  RKLrCTOUS  EDfTCATION  «!) 

time,  make  intellectual  advance.  This  Itevival  was  the  so- 
called  Humanistic.  It  dealt  not  only  with  Classical  life,  the 
language  in  literary  form,  but  it  applied  to  all  forms  of  the  beau- 
tiful, even  to  Tapestries,  Wood  Work,  Glass,  etc.  The  Ancients 
lived  their  present  life  for  the  good  it  contained.  Those  in  the 
Middle  Ages  considered  that  life  was  only  for  the  Future,  and 
hence  that  all  pleasure  was  illegitimate.  Now  came  the  com- 
bination of  these  two  ideals.  Life  is  really  a  good  thing,  but 
values  must  be  determined  by  the  Future  life.  Intellectual  life, 
therefore,  is  one  of  the  good  things  to  be  pursued.  Private  judg- 
ment now  arose.     Then  came  the  overthrow  of  the  old  ideas. 

So,  the  content  of  Education,  while  it  continued  to  be  a 
study  of  books,  was  wholly  in  Literature.  Logic  and  Grammar 
were  subordinated  to  Ehetoric.  It  was  Aristotle  who  dominated 
thought  before  in  the  Second  Renaissance.  Now  it  was  Cicero 
who  ruled  with  the  Humanists.  At  first  this  was  all  outside  of 
school  life  and  it  did  not  have  the  University  stamp  until  the 
Seventeenth  Century.  Strangely,  the  immediate  effect  of  the 
spirit  of  the  Reformation  was  to  check  the  tendencies  of  the 
Renaissance,  but  ultimately  to  aid  them.  The  immediate  effects 
restricted  Education  to  the  Moral,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Religious 
ends,  as  opposed  to  the  Scientific.  It  substituted  the  Vernacular 
for  the  Classic  study.  Its  object  was  to  understand  the  Bible 
in  order  to  develop  the  power  for  religious  use. 

Two  brief  statements  will  make  clear  the  essential  difference 
between  the  Romanists  and  the  Protestants  during  this  Reforma- 
tion Period: 

The  former  held  that  Religion  was  a  complete  Truth,  which 
does  not  change.  It  was  fixed  and  in  the  hand  of  an  Institution 
which  was  divine. 

The  latter  thought  that  Religion  is  developing  Truth,  not 
complete  in  Form  but  in  Origin,  and  it  is  part  of  the  general 
Evolutionary  Theory  of  the  Universe. 

The  corollaries  from  these  two  views  were  significant.  To 
the  one  it  meant  no  individual  interpretation.  To  the  other  it 
did.  For  the  one,  only  memory  and  Dialectics  were  needed  in 
Religion ;  for  the  other,  the  deepest  Education  and  Research 
in  original  sources.     The  spirit  of  inquiry,  of  investigation,  of 


440  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

the  broadest  knowledge,  of  the  fullest  study  of  and  in  the  world, 
came  from  the  spirit  of  the  Reformation. 

To  the  Reformers  we  owe  our  Public  School  S3'stems  of 
to-day.  Popular  Education  became  necessary  that  each  indi- 
vidual might  study  the  Scripture  himself.  Luther  opposed  the 
older  systems  and  urged  general  Education.  Mclancthon  pushed 
this  still  further.  After  the  School  men,  in  1524,  others  fol- 
lowed. 

The  Straatsburg  or  Sturms  System  arose.  Almost  syn- 
chronous came  the  Saxony  and  Wurtemburg  Systems. 

Two  Chief  Types  of  Education  Were  Now  Seen. 

1.  THE  lirMANTSTIC— The  Humanistic  conception 
was  to  develop  the  appreciation  of  Classical  Literature  and  the 
aesthetic  principles  in  general.  It  handled  the  Ancient  Lan- 
guages as  seen  in  their  Classic  form,  in  order  to  give  power  to 
use  them.  A  scholarly  Education  now  meant  the  ability  to  read 
Ciceronian  Latin.  The  Humanists,  therefore,  made  no  appeal 
to  the  masses. 

Chief  among  the  Orders  who  led  in  this  Movement  were  the 
"Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  or  Jeromites/""  one  of  whose 
earliest  leaders  was  Thomas  a  Kempis.  Other  noted  educational 
leaders  were  John  Wcssel,  Reuchlin,  Erasmus,  and  AgricoJa. 
Agricola  was  the  Father  of  Humanist  Literature  in  Europe, 
which  in  his  time  not  only  included  Literature,  but  its  content, 
as  seen  in  Philosophy.  This  order  spread  all  over  Europe  from 
its  birthplace  in  Holland,  reaching  by  the  end  of  the  Fifteenth 
Century  to  Flanders,  France,  and  Germany.  John  Stnrms' 
School  at  Straatsburg  was  the  best  type  of  the  Humanist  School. 
His  ideas  found  their  way  through  every  part  of  Europe,  even  to 
England,  and  his  curriculum,  methods,  and  text  books  were  in- 
troduced into  English  Schools  that  had  been  founded  by  Henry 
the  Eighth  and  Edward  the  Sixth. 

Even  the  Jesuits  in  1540  Ijorrowed  his  ideas  for  their  great 
schools.  Sturms'  School  \vas  a  Training  School  for  the  Edu- 
cators of  Europe,  who  came  to  him  by  the  thousands.  It  was 
founded  in  1537,  and  continued  unchanged  for  the  forty  3'ears 
of  his  leadership,  and  was  perpetuated  after  his  death.  Its  basal 
aim    was    Piety,    Knowledge,    and    Eloquence.     A    nine-years' 


TITE  ITISTOnv  OF  PvETJOTOUS  EDUCATrOX  441 

coiirso  was  mapped  out.  The  currieuluiii  was  entirely  in  Latin. 
Tlie  ()ut<j:n)wtli  of  that  School  was  the  University  oi"  Straatsburg. 

This  i)arty  sjjread  over  a  large  part  of  Germany  during  the 
Fifteenth  Century,  every  large  town  having  one  or  more  of  its 
houses.  Its  chief  object  was  Education,  which  it  carried  on 
sometimes  through  schools,  sometimes  through  preaching  and 
lecturing,  and  sometimes  by  the  dissemination  of  religious  litera- 
ture. Special  attention  was  given  to  the  education  of  children. 
After  the  Sixteenth  Century  the  Order  declined,  since  the  State 
founded  schools  to  provide  for  the  regular  and  systematic  educa- 
tion of  all. 

Another  important  body  was  The  United  Brethren",  the 
]\[0RAVL\NS,  wlu),  at  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation,  had  over 
',?()(), 000  members,  with  printing  presses  sending  out  a  steady 
stream  of  literature.  They  WTre  found  in  Saxony,  Prussia, 
Denmark,  Russia,  Switzerland,  and  England.  Wherever  they 
settled,  they  established  schools  for  the  religious  instruction 
of  children. 

The  Waldenses  contributed  largely  to  the  spread  of  Re- 
ligious Instruction  during  this  Period.  They  preached  in  the 
streets  and  in  the  houses.  Exiled  from  Lyons,  their  home,  they 
took  their  families  and  set  out  upon  teaching  tours  through 
Southern  France.  At  the  opening  of  the  Reformation  they  had 
settlements  in  Italy,  Switzerland,  France,  and  Germany.  As 
early  as  1529,  Cathedral  teaching  was  established  by  Luther 
to  be  given  on  the  first  day  of  the  week.  The  same  year  he  pub- 
lished his  Catechism.  In  1564  the  Archbishop  of  Milan,  Charles 
Borromeo,  established  a  system  of  schools  that  covered  his  entire 
diocese,  and  have  continued  in  a  more  or  less  modified  form  to 
the  present  day,  along,  of  course,  the  Cathedral  method. 

The  Jesuits. — On  the  side  of  the  Romanists,  all  progressive 
Education  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits.  Since  the  revival 
of  learning  no  body  of  men  has  played  so  prominent  a  part  in 
Education  as  they.  Seizing  on  Education  as  a  stepping-stone 
to  power  and  influence,  they  framed  a  system  of  schools  which 
drove  all  important  competitors  from  the  field,  wliich  made  the 
Jesuits  the  instructors  of  Roman  Catholics  and,  to  some  extent, 
of  Protestants.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years  all  the  famous 
men  of  Europe  received  the  Jesuit  training. 


442  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

As  an  Order  they  were  founded  in  1540  by  a  Bull  of  Pope 
Paul  the  Third,  "for  the  purpose  of  instructing  boys  and  ig- 
norant persons  in  the  Christian  Eeligion."  In  1599  they 
adopted  the  famous  Katio  Studiorum,  which  was  the  fruit  of  a 
Commission  under  the  generalship  of  Aquaviva.  By  this  Code 
the  Jesuit  schools  have  ever  since  been  governed,  though  about 
fifty  years  ago  a  slight  revision  was  made,  bringing  the  Code  to 
modern  requirements. 

The  society  well  understood  that  secular  learning  was  more 
in  demand  than  religious,  and  they  offered  the  more  valued  in- 
struction that  they  might  reach  their  constituency.  They 
founded  schools  and  colleges,  issued  degrees,  and  lectured  at 
public  universities.  Their  foundations  practically  extended 
through  the  Ivomance  countries,  except  in  France,  where  they 
had  the  opposition  of  the  regular  clergy  and  the  University  of 
Paris  to  contend  against. 

The  Jesuit  teacher  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  his  work. 
Studies  were  abandoned  and  his  religious  exercises  curtailed.  lie 
began  in  the  lowest  Form  and  went  up  with  his  pupils,  as  is  the 
system  now  in  Scotland.  The  single  exception  was  that  the 
highest  classes  were  taught  by  the  same  teacher,  who  remained 
teacher  of  that  class  for  life.  A  uniform  and  strict  super- 
vision was  maintained  in  every  country.  Instruction  was  given 
gratuitously. 

The  pupils  in  the  Jesuit  schools  were  of  two  kinds:  those 
who  were  training  for  the  Order,  who  had  passed  the  Novitiate; 
and  the  Externes,  who  were  pupils  merely.  The  school  was  ar- 
ranged in  five  classes  (since  increased  to  eight).  The  subject 
matter  included:  Grammar,  Phetoric,  Poetry,  History,  Ecading 
and  Writing,  and  Latin,  which  superseded  all  other  languages. 
A  great  part  of  their  teaching  was  given  orally,  though  written 
exercises,  translations,  etc.,  were  a  part  of  each  day's  program. 

Certain  boys  in  each  class,  who  were  called  the  Decurions, 
repeated  their  task  to  the  master,  and  then,  in  his  presence, 
heard  the  other  boys  repeat  theirs,  while  the  master  corrected 
the  written  exercises.  Emulation  was  carried  to  such  an  extent 
that  all  boys  were  arranged  in  pairs,  each  pair  being  rivals  to 
each  other.     Every  class  was  divided  into  hostile  camps,  called 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  443 

TJoinc  and  Cartlia.c^e,  to  have  pitched  battles  on  questions.  This 
was  the  phm  of  the  lower  grades. 

In  the  higher  grades  a  better  kind  of  rivalry  was  cultivated 
by  means  of  Academies,  voluntary  Associations  for  study,  which 
met  together  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Master.  The 
Jesuits  appealed  to  the  self-respect  of  their  pupils  by  the  weekly 
publication  of  offences,  and  by  Titles  and  Badges  of  Honor. 
The  school  hours  were  remarkable,  being  two  and  a  half  hours 
in  the  morning  and  one  and  a  half  in  the  afternoon,  a  whole 
holiday  a  week  in  Summer,  and  half  a  holiday  in  Winter. 

Almost  all  their  strength  was  thrown  into  the  study  of  the 
Latin  language,  which  was  to  be  used  not  only  in  Heading  and 
Writing,  but  in  Speaking.  A  regular  method  was  pursued  in 
each  lesson.  First,  the  general  meaning  of  the  whole  passage. 
Second,  the  explanation  of  each  verse.  Third,  any  outside  in- 
formation regarding  same.  Fourth,  application  of  the  rules  of 
Ehetoric  and  Poetry.  Fifth,  examination  of  the  Latinity.  Sixth, 
some  moral  lesson. 

Attention  was  secured  by  punishing  the  inattentive.  Every 
pupil  was  required  to  reproduce  to  the  teacher  what  he  had  said, 
and  to  show  his  written  notes.  One  of  their  general  maxims  was 
Eepetitio  Mater  studiorum,  "Repetition  is  the  mother  of  learn- 
ing." Thoroughness  and  precision  in  every  piece  of  work  were 
required.  The  usual  duration  of  the  course  in  the  Lower  School 
was  six  years,  every  year  closing  with  a  formal  examination.  The 
names  of  the  pupils  who  had  distinguished  themselves  were  pub- 
lished in  order  of  merit. 

Every  lesson  began  with  a  prayer  or  the  Sign  of  the  Cross. 
Bodily  health  was  carefully  attended  to. 

There  was  a  definite  aim  in  the  Jesuit  teaching  which  did 
much  to  win  their  way.  They  were  intensely  practical,  and  the 
advance  that  the  Jesuits  made  and  their  contribution  to  Edu- 
cational ideals  lay  in  the  fact  that  they  pointed  out  a  perfectly 
attainable  goal,  and  also  pointed  out  the  road  by  which  that  goal 
could  be  approached.  Their  weakness  lay  in  the  fact  that  they 
did  not  aim  to  develop  all  the  faculties  of  their  pupils,  but 
merely  the  receptive  and  reproductive  ones.  They  suppressed 
originality  and  independence  of  mind. 


444  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

Their  popularity  was  due  to  the  means  employed  more  than 
to  the  result  obtained.  The  Jesuit  teachers  desired  to  lead, 
rather  than  to  drive,  their  pupils.  The  instruction  of  youth, 
they  felt,  would  always  be  best  when  it  was  pleasantest. 

Therefore,  the  masters  were  to  secure  their  boys'  affections, 
to  show  an  interest  in  everything  that  concerned  them  and  not 
merely  in  their  studies.  In  order  that  learning  might  be  pleas- 
ant the  pupils  were  not  to  be  over-tasked.  The  master  was  to 
study  the  character  and  capacity  of  each  boy  and  keep  a  book 
with  particulars  about  him. 

The  Jesuits  did  much  to  advance  the  Education  of  their 
kind.  No  other  school  system  has  ever  met  with  so  great  a 
success,  or  was  built  up  by  the  united  efforts  of  so  many  astute 
intellects.  Their  subject  matter  was  narrow,  and  some  of  their 
means  poor,  but  system  and  order  and  attractiveness  were  new 
ideals  in  Education. 

other  Orders  in  the  Church. 

The  Oratoriones  of  the  Church  were  opposed  to  the  Jesu- 
its. In  some  respects  they  were  more  modern.  They  were  called 
Port  Royalists  from  the  historical  point  of  view,  or  Jansen- 
ISTS  from  the  religious  point  of  view.  They  organized  in  Lower 
France  at  Port  Poyal.  Their  leader  was  St.  Cyran  of  the  Sev- 
enth century.  They  established  the  Little  Schools  of  Paris.  Cer- 
tain Educational  ideas  were  worked  out  by  them  different  from 
the  Jesuits.  In  a  way,  they  were  the  precursors  of  Pestalozzi. 
From  them  came  the  literature  for  Educational  text  books,  etc. 

Their  plan  was  to  take  complete  control  of  the  child.  The 
teacher  was  supposed  to  keep  the  child  under  his  eye  day  and 
night,  with  the  idea  that  Education  would  overcome  the  total 
depravity  of  human  nature.  Thus  their  chief  aim  was  Piety, 
not  Knowledge,  Peason,  or  Learning.  Their  schools  were 
small,  because  of  the  necessary  watch-care,  six  children  being 
allowed  to  a  teacher.  The  motives  were  Pleasure  and  Interest, 
not  Compulsion,  nor  Rivalry,  nor  Emulation.  The  advance  was 
in  making  their  methods  attractive.  They  aimed  at  the  thought 
in  Classic  Education,  and  so  they  did  not  content  themselves 
with  studying  extracts,  but  read  the  whole  production. 

Another  great  mark  of  progress  was  that  they  used  transla- 
tions.    Till  their  time  children  learned  to  read  and  write  only 


THE  lllSTURY  OF  KKLlCiiOLS  EDUCATION  445 

in  a  foreign  language,  so  this  was  a  radical  break.  Their  only 
addition  in  subject  matter  was  jMathematics,  on  which  they  laid 
great  stress.  The  result  of  their  work  was  the  revival  of  the 
vernacular,  and  though  they  drew  few  people,  they  revived 
I'rcneh  literature  lo  a  great  extent.  The  vernacular  literature 
was  being  revived  in  England  at  the  same  time  under  the  Eu- 
phemistic ]\[ovement. 

During  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries  Elementary 
Education  was  neglected  by  the  Church,  owing  to  the  conflicts 
for  the  prerogative  of  the  Orders.  In  1794  La  Salle  founded  his 
first  Institute.  He  tried  to  do  for  the  P]lementary  what  the 
Jesuits  had  done  for  the  Secondary  Education.  His  Schools,  in 
control  of  the  Church,  soon  represented  all  the  Elementary  Edu- 
cation of  France,  England,  and  Ireland.  They  agreed  with  the 
Port  Royalists  in  the  chief  use  of  the  vernacular.  The  subject 
matter  was  Reading,  Writing,  Spelling,  the  Catechism,  and 
Symphony. 

In  England  the  i-eligious  type  was  more  extensive  and  more 
lasting  than  in  any  other  country.  Two  types  of  schools  were 
(1)  the  Public  School  system,  which  replaced  the  old  Mon- 
astic Schools;  (2)  the  Tutorial  System  of  wealthy  families. 
There  were  no  Elementary  schools  for  the  masses  until  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  when  Charity  Schools  were 
established  in  great  numbers.  They  were  both  in  the  Established 
Church  and  among  the  Xon-Conformists. 

Haslett  writes :  ''A  flood  of  catechisms  was  poured  out  on  the 
Protestant  world  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  Catechetical 
instruction  was  revived  with  more  than  Apostolic  zeal.  The 
pendulum  was  now  swinging  to  the  opposite  extreme !  The 
danger  of  too  much  and  too  advanced  religious  instruction  was 
real  and  great.  The  catechism  of  Calvin  appeared  in  1536  and 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  in  1563;  Bellarmin  issued  his  in 
1603;  Bossuet  published  his  in  16<S'J" ;  and  the  Catechism  of  the 
English  Church  was  published  in  1604.  The  Westminster  Cate- 
chism was  issued  in  its  smaller  form  in  1646  and  in  its  larger 
form  in  1647.  Cranmer  published  a  catechism  in  1548.  King 
Edward  YFs  catechism  came  out  in  1553,  Bunyan's  Instruction 
for  the  Ignorant  in  1672.  and  Watts'  Catechism  for  Children 
and  Youtli,  in  1730.     The  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent 


446  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

appeared  in  15GG  and  remains  to  the  present  the  chief  catechism 
in  the  Ivonian  Catholic  church." 

II.    Realistic  Type  of  Education. 

Opposed  to  the  Humanistic  Type,  which  we  have  been  study- 
ing, was  the  Realistic  Type.  The  tendency  grew  out  of  the  Re- 
naissance. The  marvellous  and  inspiring  work  of  the  Great  Edu- 
cational Reformers  was  an  outgrowth  from  the  Realistic.  The 
Realistic  Type  merges  imperceptibly  into  the  Scientific  Attitude, 
which  marks  all  Education  to-day.  Milton,  Montaigne,  Ascham, 
Ratich,  and  their  followers  were  the  early  Innovators  and  Re- 
formers. The  study  of  the  Classics  was  the  means  and  not  the 
end.  The  projier  end  was  to  discover  the  realism  of  the  Ancients 
and  of  Nature.     This  early  ran  into  the  direct  study  of  Nature. 

We  will  now  devote  a  sentence  or  two  to  some  of  these  great 
Reformers.    No  more  inspiring  book  has  ever  been  penned  than 
Professor  Quick's  Educational  Reformers.     Every  thorough 
teacher  ought  to  read  it. 
Rabelais,  1483  to  1553. 

He  opposed  Classicism,  and  although  ho  was  a  Romanist,  he 
inveighed  against  the  abuses  of  the  Church.  From  his  experi- 
ence in  medicine,  he  leaned  toward  Scientific  interests  and  inves- 
tigation. He  was  educated  for  a  life  in  the  world  and  was 
opposed  to  Scholasticism  and  Monasticism.  The  subject  matter 
of  his  educational  ideas  included  Hygiene,  Gymnastics,  Relig- 
ious Reading,  Scripture,  Latin,  Greek,  Chaldee,  Natural  Sci- 
ences, the  General  Sciences,  Astronomy,  etc.  The  Sciences  were 
to  be  gained  by  direct  contact.  Much  was  to  be  learned  by  asso- 
ciation with  men,  as  well  as  with  books.  His  chief  influence 
was  due  to  his  suggestion  of  method. 
Milton,  about  1644. 

He  combined  in  a  way  the  Realistic  and  Humanistic  tenden- 
cies. Milton  has  been  called  "the  most  notable  man  who  ever 
kept  school."  Like  everything  connected  with  him,  his  sug- 
gestions are  of  heroic  mold.  One  gasps  for  breath  at  the  mere 
enumeration  of  the  subjects  to  be  learned. 

In  Natural  Philosophy,  the  scholars  may  proceed  leisurely 
from  the  history  of  Meteors,  Minerals,  Plants  and  Living  Ani- 
mals as  far  as  Anatomy.     In  Law,  they  were  to  dive  into  the 


Tin:  HISTORY  OF  UKI.KJIOUS  EDUCATION  447 

grounds  of  I^aw  and  Legal  Justice  as  delivered  first  by  Moses 
.  .  .  .  to  J^yeurgus,  Solon,  etc.,  through  Justinian,  down  to 
Saxon  and  Common  Laws  of  England.  They  were  to  read  the 
works  of  Plato,  Xenophon,  Cicero,  Plutarch  and  the  Locrian 
Remnants.  They  were  to  study  Hebrew,  Chaldee  and  Syrian. 
And  they  may  easily  have  learned  at  any  odd  time  the  Italian 
language.  Arithmetic  and  the  Elements  of  Geometry  were  to 
be  learned  by  playing.  A  thorough  Physical  Training  was  to  be 
acquired.  The  helpful  experiences  of  Miners,  Fowlers,  Fishers, 
(iardeners.  Apothecaries,  Engineers,  ]\Iariners,  and  Anatomists 
might  be  used. 

His  definition  of  Education  is  one  that  holds  good  to-day : 
"That  which  fits  the  man  to  perform  justly,  skilfully  and  mag- 
nanimously all  duties,  both  Public  and  Private,  of  Peace  and 
War." 
Mo7italgne— 1533-1592. 

Montaigne  was  the  contemporary  of  Ascham,  but  about  three 
years  younger.  In  his  Essays  he  may  have  been  said  to  have 
founded  a  School  of  Thinkers  on  the  subject  of  Education,  of 
which  Locke  and  Rousseau  were  afterwards  the  great  exponents. 
He  discarded  grammatical  teaching,  and  inculcated  Latin  as  he 
had  been  taught,  by  conversation.  "Ordinary  teaching  gives 
only  the  facts  of  others,  without  requiring  the  pupil  to  think  for 
himself.  .  .  .  According  to  the  capacity  he  has  to  deal  with  he 
put  it  to  the  test,  permitting  his  pupil  to  taste  and  relish  things, 
and  of  himself  to  choose  and  discern  them."  This  is  a  high 
educational  advance.  It  was  a  study  of  things  that  was  now 
demanded,  rather  than  of  dead  languages. 
Ascham — 1515-1568. 

Roger  Ascham  wrote  his  Schoolmaster  in  1571.  "It  con- 
tains," says  Dr.  Johnson,  "the  best  advice  that  w^as  ever  given 
for  the  study  of  languages."  Another  critic  states  that  this 
book  sets  forth  the  only  sound  method  of  acquiring  a  dead  lan- 
guage. "First,  let  the  child  learn  the  eight  parts  of  speech,  and 
then  the  right  joining  together  of  substantives  with  adjectives, 
the  noun  with  the  verb,  the  relative  with  the  antecedent  .  .  . 
joining  the  rules  of  his  grammar  book  with  the  examples  of  his 
present  lesson,  until  the  scholar  by  himself  be  able  to  fetch  out 
of  his  grammar  every  rule  for  every  example ;  and  let  the  gram- 


448  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

mar  book  be  ever  in  tbe  scholar's  hand,  and  also  used  by  him  as 
a  dictionary  for  every  present  use." 

Translation  was  the  great  instrument  for  all  kinds  of  learn- 
ing. Following  Pliny,  he  found  that  by  double  translation  {i.e., 
translating  from  the  Latin  and  translating  back  again),  the 
child  learned  easily  little  by  little,  not  only  all  the  hard  congru- 
ities  of  grammar,  the  choice  of  ablest  words,  the  right  pronounc- 
ing of  words  and  sentences,  but  also  a  true  understanding  and 
rightful  judgment  both  for  writing  and  speaking. 

The  Early  Scientific  Tendency. 

This  is  the  liealistic  or  Naturalistic  tendency  further  devel- 
oped, opposed  to  the  Eeligious  and  Humanistic  tendencies,  in 
demanding  the  education  of  the  whole  man,  that  the  content  of 
languages  should  be  mastered  as  well  as  the  form,  and  especially 
that  the  study  of  Nature  should  be  included.  Milton,  and  Mon- 
taigne, and  Kabelais  had  good  ideas,  but  no  method  or  definito- 
ness  in  Education. 

There  was  less  use  for  the  Classics  and  less  respect  for  the 
Past  than  any  preceding  age  displayed.  All  were  looking  for- 
ward to  the  Future,  seeking  what  it  might  teach.  Thus  the  men 
of  this  Period  were  Innovators.  The  characteristics  of  all  of 
them  were  that  things  should  come  before  words.  Knowledge 
was  to  be  gained  through  the  senses ;  Education  should  begin  in 
the  mother  tongue ;  Physical  Training  should  be  included. 
Bacon,  1580. 

He  was  the  head  and  front  of  the  Movement,  though  not 
an  Educator  himself.  The  Advancement  of  Learning  con- 
tains his  great  plan  of  Education,  summing  up  the  progress  of 
the  Past  Thought,  directing  it  to  the  Future.  The  New  At- 
lantis was  a  eutopian  work  describing  the  institutions  hoped 
for  in  time  to  come.  So  also  were  his  Essays  on  Study,  CusTOii, 
and  Education. 

Bacon  stands  for  the  Scientific  Movement  in  its  entirety, 
and  from  him  all  the  others  got  their  ideas  and  inspiration.  The 
foundation  belief  was  that  Nature  siiould  be  the  subject  matter 
of  all  Education.  Nature  thus  took  the  place  of  Eeligion  in  the 
Old  Education,  just  as  Religion  superseded  Philosophy  or  the 
Study  of  the  Ancients. 


Till';   IIISTonv  OF   ItKLKiiOUS  EDUCATION  449 

EdiU'iUiou  is  thus  applied  to  the  race,  not  merely  to  the  indi- 
vidual. Knowledge  is  never  for  itself  alone,  but  for  its  results 
on  mankind.  This  was  a  practical  Utilitarianism,  opposing 
Pedantry  and  Erudition  as  such.  It  was  a  protest  against  For- 
malism, both  in  Education  and  in  Keligion.  A  Century  after 
the  Kei'ormation  and  on  the  very  verge  of  the  Puritan  llevolt, 
Bacon's  own  life  was  lost  in  experimentation  along  this  very 
line  (i.  c.  Eefrigeration). 

His  XovuM  Organuj\[  set  forth  the  Inductive  Method,  reach- 
ing the  Truth  through  particulars  and  thence  to  the  general. 
Induction  was  to  replace  speculation.  The  Inductive  Method 
is  the  Method  of  our  schools  to-day. 

Mnlcaster,  1548-1611. 

Mulcaster  lived  half  a  generation  before  Bacon,  and  while 
not  a  strict  Scientist,  he  was  far  beyond  the  Iicalists.  He  was 
a  teacher  himself  and  felt  and  recognized  the  effects  of  the 
times.     He,  too,  urged  the  return  to  the  study  of  Nature. 

Ratich,  1571-1635. 

Ratich  was  sometimes  known  as  Katicus,  and  again  as  Patke, 
according  to  the  translation  of  his  Latin  name.  He  worked  be- 
tween 16 10  and  1619,  and  was  the  first  man  to  try  to  apply 
the  principles  of  the  Scientific  Movement.  He  lived  under 
Bacon's  influence.  During  these  early  years  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century,  he  travelled  all  over  Europe  offering  to  Princes  and 
Universities  the  wonderful  discovery  whereby  old  or  young 
might  with  ease  in  a  very  short  time  learn  Hebrew,  Greek, 
Latin,  or  any  other  tongue.  He  wanted  to  found  a  school 
wherein  all  Arts  and  Sciences  might  be  rapidly  learned,  and 
by  which  he  would  introduce  and  peacefully  maintain  through- 
out the  Continent  a  uniform  speech,  a  uniform  government,  and 
more  wonderful  still,  a  uniform  religion. 

He  was  not  by  any  means  a  quack,  and  the  position  that  his 
name  holds  in  the  history  of  Education  is  a  guarantee  of  that. 
In  1612  he  memorialized  the  Electoral  Diet,  then  sitting  at 
Franlvfort;  and  his  Memorial  attracted  so  much  notice,  that 
several  Princes  appointed  learned  men  to  inquire  into  his  sys- 
tem. Their  report  was  that  "Eatich  has  discovered  the  Art  of 
Teaching,  according  to  Nature." 


450  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

Influenced  by  this  report  the  town  of  Augsburg,  in  16 14, 
summoned  Ratich  to  reform  their  schools.  We  grant  that  he 
failed,  and  even  his  best  friends  were  forced  to  admit  that  they 
were  disappointed.  They  did  not  desert  him,  however,  and  in 
1619,  under  the  patronage  of  two  of  the  Princes,  Ratich  was 
establislied  at  Kothen,  and  all  his  demands  were  complied  with. 
A  printing  press  was  set  up  with  Oriental  and  European  types. 
A  body  of  teachers  came  to  receive  his  instructions,  and  then 
carried  them  out,  under  his  directions. 

But  in  the  end  the  entire  project  was  overthrown,  because 
of  his  uncompromising  Lutheranism.  For  more  than  twenty 
years  Ratich  continued  to  exploit  his  system,  but  the  din  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  overcame  him.  His  failure  w-as  due  chiefly 
to  the  fact  that  he  tried  to  work  out  his  ideas  on  too  large  a 
scale  and  without  enough  experience.  His  principle,  however, 
was  right:  "All  things  by  experience,  or  all  things  by  Induc- 
tion and  Investigation." 
Comenius,  1592-1670. 

John  Amos  Comenius,  the  son  of  a  miller,  who  belonged  to 
the  Moravian  Brethren,  was  born  at  the  village  of  Comna,  in 
1592.  His  life  and  work  were  too  long  to  be  given  with  much 
detail.  He  applied  the  Scientific  Principles  and  stood  for  the 
great  Forward  Movement. 

A  series  of  books  was  written  by  him  which  revolutionized 
Education.  He  was  the  author  of  127  treatises  in  all.  The 
Great  Didactic  was  his  greatest  book.  Comenius  thought  that, 
by  a  certain  well-organized  school  system,  this  movement  could 
be  spread  all  over  the  Continent,  and  that  it  would  accomplish 
and  complete  the  organization  of  mankind  and  society,  after 
the  theories  of  Bacon;  and  so  Pansophic  schools  were  set  up 
with  the  support  of  Germany,  England,  and  Sweden.  These 
schools  existed  until  the  Puritan  Revolt,  which  broke  up  tlie 
movement. 

Education  began  before  the  age  of  six,  and  took  in  a  whole 
array  of  abstract  knowledge,  as  well  as  concrete  phenomena  of 
Nature.  Comenius  claimed  that  there  was  a  natural  order  in 
the  development  of  children's  minds,  and  so  revolutionized  the 
instruction  of  the  earlier  years.  He  upheld  the  Inductive 
Method,  that  objects  should  come  before  words,  precepts  before 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  451 

concepts.    His  text  books  were  used  all  over  the  world,  and  were 
translated  into  even  the  African  languages. 

The  first  use  of  illustrations  to  aid  study  appeared  in  his 
Orbis  Pictus.  The  vernacular  was  used  throughout  and  even 
Latin  was  approached  through  this  medium.  The  curriculum 
of  each  school  included:  (a)  The  School  of  Infancy,  the  Kin- 
dergarten under  the  mother;  (6)  The  Vernacular  Schools,  from 
6  to  13  years  old,  the  subject  matter  being  the  three  R's,  Men- 
suration, Geometry,  Singing,  Religion,  and  the  Economics  of  the 
Home,  General  History,  Geography,  and  the  Mechanical  Arts; 
(c)  The  Latin  School,  which  had  an  encyclopedic  element, 
teaching  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts  or  Sciences,  and  all  philoso- 
phies; (d)  Universities,  like  the  College,  teaching  everything; 
(e)  The  College  of  Research. 

"The  Education  According  to  Nature"  Tendency. 

This  was  a  distinct  advance  on  the  early  Scientific  tendency 
in  four  general  ways :  (a)  It  attempted  to  supply  the  principle 
of  Laws  to  Education,  (h)  These  Laws  were  to  be  derived  from 
man  as  an  individual,  and  Education  was  to  be  controlled  by 
the  Truths  of  man's  psychological  nature.  The  beginning  of 
the  study  of  man  was  seen  here,  (c)  There  was  a  much  wider 
recognition  of  the  physical  in  man  and  Education.  The  physical 
was  regarded  above  the  psychological,  and  the  vast  importance 
of  the  adolescent  period  was  recognized,  (d)  The  attempt  was 
made  to  discover  the  basis  of  psychological  development. 

While  this  movement  was  an  advance,  philosophically,  the 
interests  of  its  leaders  were  much  narrower  that  those  of  the 
early  Scientific  group.  There  was  not  the  all  around  interest 
of  Comenius,  nor  the  broad  philosophic  basis  of  Bacon.  The 
early  movement  had  an  interest  in  knowledge  and  in  its  sys- 
tematization. 

This  tendency,  however,  cared  for  Education  only  as  a  process 
of  growth.     Authority,  overthrown  before  in  theory,  was  now 
overthrown  in  fact.    Little  value  was  placed  upon  the  Past  and 
the  Classics  were  little  used. 
LocJce,  1693. 

Among  the  writers  on  Education  and  the  inventors  of  new 
methods,  Locke  and  Hamilton  were  the  only  Englislimen  who 


452  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

had  European  celebrity.     Hamilton  did  little  more  than  carry 
out  the  suggestions  of  Locke. 

Locke  was  educated  in  Oxford,  and  later  became  tutor  there, 
and  later  on  a  student  of  medicine.  He  was  in  educational  work 
all  his  life.  His  books  were  the  most  influential  works  ever 
published  in  the  English  language.  Some  Thoughts  Concern- 
ing Education  and  Essays  on  the  Human  Understanding 
affected  the  practice  of  Education,  especially  in  England,  even 
down  to  the  present  time.  Locke  was  the  most  read  and  the 
most  quoted  of  all  educational  writers  in  England. 

The  first  part  of  his  Human  Understanding  is  on  the  physical 
side  of  Education,  and  is  the  first  systematic  treatise  ever  writ- 
ten on  that  aspect.  The  fundamental  idea  was  that  of  harden- 
ing. Let  Nature  have  her  own  way,  and  offer  no  restrictions 
and  but  few  protections.  The  second  part  was  devoted  to  moral 
Education,  which  was  to  precede  instruction  in  point  of  time. 
Moral  training  was  Virtue,  and  next  to  Virtue  came  the  element 
of  good  morals. 

Locke  opposed  corporal  punishment.  His  motives  were 
Honor  and  a  Sense  of  Duty,  rather  than  compulsion,  or  Utility, 
or  Emulation,  or  Affection  and  Love.  The  third  part  was  de- 
voted to  intellectual  Education,  and  was  graded  to  the  psycho- 
logical development  of  the  child.  There  was  to  be  no  grammar ; 
little  systematic  treatment;  teaching  was  to  be  made  attractive; 
games  were  to  be  employed;  Mathematics,  Ethics,  Common  Law, 
Physical  Science,  Manual  Trade,  Bookkeeping,  Drawing,  and 
Vernacular  Studies  made  up  the  curriculum. 

Locke  represented  the  Tutorial  System  of  all  England,  and 
gave  the  basis  for  Newton,  Shaftsbury,  etc.  His  health  maxims 
and  his  emphasis  on  virtue  and  good  morals,  as  well  as  his  oppo- 
sition to  capital  punishment  and  his  controlling  motives,  were 
strong  points  of  advance. 
Rousseau,  1712 — . 

Almost  as  important  as  Locke  stands  Eousseau.  "We  can 
think  of  no  current  educational  ideas  to-day  that  do  not  some- 
how or  other  connect  with  him.  He  is  hard  to  study  because 
his  ideas  are  put  in  emotional  forms,  or  are  in  paradoxes  and 
seeminff  contradictions. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  453 

In  his  Emile  we  liave  a  religious  and  educational  attack 
upon  society.  Kousscau  was  a  revolutionist  and  an  iconoclast. 
His  great  principle  was  that  man  is  essentially  good,  but  has 
been  depraved  by  society;  and  thus  to  reform  man  we  must 
destroy  society  and  reconstruct  hiin.  This  principle  is  brought 
out  in  Civilization,  Its  Cause  and  Its  Cure.  He  would 
found  a  new  society  by  a  return  to  Nature,  but  his  idea  of 
Nature  was  totally  different  from  the  Nature  of  the  Scientific 
Period.  The  application  of  his  interpretation  of  Nature  was 
that  Nature  should  guide  entirely  in  the  Education  of  the 
child.  Education  should  be  given  only  by  the  parents,  the 
child's  natural  guardians.  This  was  a  return  to  the  normal 
family  life,  which  was  wanting  in  his  time.  He  rejected  all 
artificial  methods  in  Education.  We  must  study  the  language 
for  its  grammar;  we  must  study  astronomy  by  the  stars,  not  by 
books.  There  should  be  no  preaching  nor  instruction,  as  these 
cover  merely  ideas,  not  knowledge.  Books  cover  but  the  expe- 
rience of  others. 

He  urged  that  the  child  should  be  brought  into  fearless  con- 
tact with  wild  Nature  alone  in  the  country  with  his  tutor,  iso- 
lated from  all  human  contact  and  depravity.  Every  influence 
on  the  child  was  to  seem  to  him  to  come  from  Nature,  though 
the  tutor  might  trick  the  child  in  order  to  guide  him  accord- 
ing to  Nature.  Education  was  to  be  that  of  the  Will,  not  of 
the  Intellect,  or  Reason.  Its  result  was  to  be  found  in  Doing, 
not  in  Intellect  or  Eeason. 

The  intellect  was  not  to  be  considered  until  the  child  reached 
12  or  14.  The  early  education  was  moral  and  physical  entirely. 
The  individual's  own  happiness  and  own  impulses  and  instincts 
were  to  be  the  guiding  stars.  This,  of  course,  was  strongly 
opposed  to  the  Puritan  and  Jesuit  ideals. 

"Take  the  road  directly  opposite  to  that  which  is  in  use, 
and  you  will  almost  always  do  right"  was  one  of  his  radicalisms, 
"^lan  as  he  ought  to  be  is  perfectly  good ;  man  as  he  is  is  utterly 
bad."  The  early  Education,  therefore,  was  purely  negative, 
neither  teaching  Nature  nor  Truth,  but  guarding  the  heart  from 
error.  It  was  the  art  of  being  ignorant,  exercising  the  body  and 
keeping  the  mind  inactive. 


454  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

No  child  could  possibly  be  so  educated  as  to  resemble  Emile, 
and  no  wise  father  would  so  educate  his  son,  if  it  were  possible. 
Many  of  his  principles  are  the  soundest  principles  of  Education. 
Most  of  the  applications  are  impossible.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  Eousseau  put  his  own  child  in  an  institution  in  order 
that  he  might  devote  his  time  to  educational  research. 

Emile,  however,  is  a  standard  educational  work  and  espe- 
cially suggestive  to  parents  witli  young  children.  Rousseau's 
enthusiasm  for  Eobinson  Crusoe  was  because  that  story  was  an 
ideal  Natui-e  story.  The  Naturalistic  form  of  punishment  holds 
good  to-day.  His  results  on  Education  were :  (a)  That  Educa- 
tion was  now  looked  upon  as  natural  outcome  of  growth,  (h) 
That  there  arose  interest  in  and  sympathy  for  children,  as  the 
basis  of  all  educational  work,  (c)  The  family  became  the  ideal 
center  of  Education,  (d)  The  educational  process  and  means 
were  simplified,  (e)  Education  was  not  through  books  merely, 
but  through  objects,  and  Nature,  as  well,  and  the  Inductive 
Method  was  used.  (/)  The  child  became  now  a  positive  factor 
in  Education,  leading  to  self-activity  and  its  doctrine. 
Basedow,  1723-1790. 

Basedow  was  born  in  Hamburg  in  1723,  the  son  of  a  wig- 
maker.  He  led  one  of  the  most  famous  movements  ever  made 
in  educational  reform.  After  an  irregular  course  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Ijcipzig,  he  became  private  tutor  in  1749,  and  later  on 
a  professorsliip  was  secured  in  Denmark,  but  after  eight  years 
his  unorthodoxy  raised  such  a  storm  of  opposition  that  he  was 
removed  to  the  Gymnasium  at  Altona.  Incited  by  Rousseau's 
Emile,  he  produced  a  series  of  books,  and  became  the  Prince 
of  Innovators,  so  that  when  his  Elementary  appeared  in 
1774,  over  two  thousand  pounds  poured  in  for  the  promulgation 
of  his  plans.  There  was  a  very  general  dissatisfaction  felt  in 
the  condition  of  tlie  schools  at  that  time,  and  his  desire  to  make 
all  instruction  lively  and  natural  caught  at  the  popular  mind, 
though  he  usually  spoiled  everything  by  his  tirades  against  the 
prevailing  religious  beliefs. 

In  177G,  the  famous  Pliilanthropinum  was  founded  at  Dessau, 
where  for  the  first,  and  probably  for  the  last  time,  a  school  was 
started  in  which  use  and  wont  were  entirely  set  aside,  and  every- 
thing done  on  "improved  principles."     In  May,  1776,  when  a 


TTIK  nrSTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  455 

number  ol  sclioolinasters  assembled  from  (lifl'ererit  pai'ls  of  Uer- 
mauy,  and  even  from  far  beyond,  to  be  present  at  an  examina- 
tion of  the  pupils,  tbey  found  only  thirteen  children  in  the 
school,  including  Basedow's  own  son  and  daughter. 

The  keynote  of  his  whole  system  was  "every tiling  according 
to  Nature."  'i'he  natural  inclinations  of  the  children  were  to  be 
educated  and  directed,  but  in  no  case  to  be  suppressed.  Treat 
children  like  children,  that  they  may  remain  the  longer  uncor- 
ru{)ted.  His  method  was  practically  that  of  to-day.  Pictures 
and  objects  and  occupations,  minerals  and  metals,  and  trade,  and 
instruments,  history  and  commerce  were  all  to  be  made  use  of. 
The  conversational  melhod  was  to  be  employed  in  teaching 
languages. 

For  the  younger  children  in  the  Kindergarten  and  Primary, 
his  plans  arc  ideal  to-day,  and  the  study  of  his  wtI tings  will 
help  any  Kindergartner.  The  Philanthropin  was  finally  closed 
in  1793,  but  tlie  experiment  was  by  no  means  a  useless  one,  for, 
though  it  did  not  effect  a  tithe  of  what  Basedow  had  promised, 
it  had  introduced  many  new  ideas,  and  teachers  connected  with 
it  established  schools  on  a  similar  basis  in  different  parts  of 
Germany  and  Switzerland,  some  of  which  long  outlived  the 
parent  institution. 

The  Psychological  Tendency. 

There  were  two  important  aims  of  the  Psychological  Move- 
ment; (1)  Practical,  to  make  general  principles  and  apply  them; 
(2)  Philosophical  or  Metaphysical,  to  consider  the  principles  of 
the  basis  of  the  New  Education.  These  principles  were  the 
activity  and  development  of  the  human  mind. 

The  study  of  Psychology  arose,  and  l<]ducation  was  based  on 
the  results  of  this  study  on  the  individual  child,  though  not  in 
a  general  way.  An  interest  in  childhood  lay  at  the  basis  of  this 
new  tendency.  Pousseau  did  not  have  this  sympathetic  knowl- 
edge; it  was  only  a  theory  with  him,  not  a  general  feeling. 

There  was  a  direct  concentration  in  this  period  on  the  Ele- 
mentary Education,  whereas  the  former  movement  had  to  do 
mainly  with  Secondary  and  Higher  Education.  From  then  to 
the  present,  educational  advance  has  dealt  mainly  with  Elemen- 
tary Education.    The  fundamental  conception  of  Education  was 


456  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

now  considered  to  be  the  development  of  the  individual,  "the 
human  development  of  all  the  powers  of  the  individual." 

Witli  this  arose  the  tendency  to  universal  Education,  which 
was  concrete  and  practical  now,  not  merely  theory  as  before. 
Pestalozzi,  horn  in  1746. 

John  Henry  Pestalozzi  was  the  most  celebrated  of  Educa- 
tional Reformers.  More  interesting  than  a  novel,  more  dramatic 
than  a  play  is  De  Guimps'  Life  of  Pestalozzi.  He  expressed 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Rousseau  Movement,  the  reconstructive, 
rather  than  the  revolutionary. 

Pestalozzi  was  a  minister,  lawyer,  agriculturist,  etc.  in  turn. 
He  experimented  with  the  Emile  idea  of  Rousseau  on  his 
own  son,  and  discovered  where  it  was  impracticable.  Unfortu- 
nately he  was  impracticable  himself,  and  never  successful.  His 
lively  imagination  and  intense  sympathy  ran  away  with  him, 
and,  as  champion  of  the  ill-used  peasantry,  the  hate  of  wrong 
and  the  love  of  right  were,  with  Pestalozzi,  life-long  ideals.  Few 
lives  show  a  greater  pathos,  or  a  higher  faith,  or  a  more  un- 
flinching pertinacity. 

After  many  failures,  he  established  a  school  at  Neuhof, 
where,  by  1775,  he  had  gathered  fifty  children,  whom  he  housed, 
boarded  and  clothed  without  payment  from  their  parents,  him- 
self the  school-master,  the  mother,  the  nurse,  the  servant.  He 
showed  a  self-denial  and  a  love  of  childhood  which  was  a  sermon 
to  the  world. 

Soon  he  was  deeply  involved  in  debt,  and  a  great  part  of  his 
rich  wife's  property  and  expectations  went  up  in  smoke.  Eigh- 
teen gloomy  years  ensued,  the  best  years  in  a  man's  life,  spent 
by  Pestalozzi  in  great  distress  from  poverty  without  and  doubt 
and  despondency  within.  As  Palmer  says :  "Eighteen  years ! — 
what  a  time  for  a  soul  like  his  to  wait!  History  passes  lightly 
over  such  a  period.  Ten,  twenty,  thirty  years — it  makes  but  a 
cipher  difference  if  nothing  great  happens  in  them.  But  with 
what  agony  must  he  have  seen  day  after  day,  year  after  year 
gliding  by,  who  in  his  fervent  soul  longed  to  labor  for  the  good 
of  mankind  and  yet  looked  in  vain  for  the  opportunity  !" 

But  these  years  were  not  spent  in  idleness.  Having  no  other 
means  of  influence,  and  indeed  no  other  employment,  he  took  to 
writing.     He  produced  over  twenty  volumes  during  this  period. 


TFIK  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  457 

from  178U  to  1T98.  It  was  a  constructive  period.  His  best  book 
was  Leonard  and  Gertrude,  in  four  volumes.  Swiss  peasant 
life  was  most  artistically  depicted  in  this  work,  but  sympathy 
and  love  were  the  key-notes.  It  was  the  touchstone  of  the  new 
movement. 

Other  works  of  importance  were  Christopher  and  Alice, 
Figures  to  my  A.  B.  C.  Book,  and  Researches  in  the  Course 
OF  Nature  in  the  Development  of  the  Human  Race. 

After  the  French  Revolution,  when  the  French  troops  poured 
into  Switzerland,  everything  was  remodeled  after  the  French 
pattern.  Pcstalozzi  championed  the  new  order  and  the  five 
Directors,  who  were  placed  in  charge  of  the  government,  em- 
ployed his  pen  in  the  Revolution.  As  a  reward  he  was  made  a 
schoolmaster,  being  placed  in  charge  of  an  orphanage  of  the 
Ursulines  at  Stanz. 

Soon  eighty  children  were  under  his  care,  and  for  all  these 
Pestalozzi,  then  over  fifty  years  of  age,  undertook  the  manage- 
ment, the  clothing,  feeding,  teaching,  and  even  the  perform- 
ance of  the  most  menial  offices.  As  the  paid  official  of  a  hated 
Government,  he  was  distrusted  by  parents  and  constantly  an- 
noyed. 

Being  without  assistants,  and  overwhelmed  with  numbers,  he 
devised  new  ideas  and  discovered  new  methods,  that  have  stood 
the  test  of  time  ever  since.  His  system  of  object  lessons  settled 
the  main  features  of  the  Pestalozzian  system  of  to-day.  After  a 
year,  sickness  and  war  broke  up  the  school. 

The  next  year,  however,  he  became  schoolmaster  in  Burgdorf , 
and  a  year  later  opened  a  new  school  in  Burgdorf  Castle,  where 
he  produced  another  important  work,  embodying  the  practical 
lessons  of  his  theories,  called  How  Gertrude  Teaches  her 
Children.  In  1802  Pestalozzi,  for  once  in  his  life,  was  a  suc- 
cessful and  popular  man.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  a  deputa- 
tion and  sent  by  the  Swiss  people  to  Paris. 

In  1804,  at  the  invitation  of  the  inhabitants  of  Yverdun,  he 
opened  an  institution  for  training  teachers,  which  soon  had  a 
world-wide  reputation.  Pestalozzian  teachers  went  from  it  to 
Madrid,  to  Naples,  and  to  St.  Petersburg.  Kings  and  philoso- 
phers joined  in  doing  it  honor,  but  their  praises  were  but 
"wreaths  encircling  a  skull."     Pestalozzi's  power  was  the  love 


458  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

which  the  old  man  infused  into  the  members  of  his  schools, 
teachers  as  well  as  children,  and  this  life  was  wanting  at 
Yverdun.  The  institution  was  too  large  to  be  carried  on  without 
more  method  and  discipline  than  the  impracticable  Pestalozzi 
was  master  of.  Dissensions  arose  among  the  teachers,  who  were 
following  each  his  own  line;  hence  many  foolish  things  went 
abroad  as  Pestalozzi's  and  harmed  the  school. 

Finally  complaints  brought  his  institution  to  an  unhonored 
close,  and  the  sun  went  down  in  darkness  on  the  dear  old  man 
of  eighty,  with  an  apparent  failure  of  all  his  hopes.  In  reality 
he  had  not  failed.  No !  Eather  he  had  succeeded  beyond  all 
thought.  His  true  function  was  to  educate  ideas,  not  children, 
and  when  two  decades  later  the  centennial  of  his  birth  was  cele- 
brated by  schoolmasters,  not  only  in  his  native  country,  but 
throughout  Germany,  it  became  apparent  that  Pestalozzi's  ideas 
had  borne  fruit  and  that  the  revolution  of  the  schools  had  been 
accomplished.* 

His  principles  are  important  enough  to  note.  The  years  from 
seven  to  twelve  he  counted  the  most  important.  Education  is 
the  process  of  development,  not  the  process  of  teaching  and  get- 
ting knowledge.  It  must  deal  with  things,  and  not  books ;  must 
be  from  within,  not  from  without.  It  is  an  unfolding  of  the 
child's  own  powers  and  faculties.  The  principle  of  assimila- 
tion must  be  required,  which  is  the  natural  process,  and  in  regu- 


•  It  is  worth  calling  attention  to  the  exquisite  epitaph  which  marks 
Pestalozzi's  grave: 

Here  Rests 

HENRY  PESTALOZZI 

BOEN   AT   ZUEICH   THE    12TII   OF   JAN'Y,    1746 

Died  at  Beugq  the  17th  of  Feb'y,  1827 
Savior  of  the  Poor  at  Neuboff,  At  Stanz  the  Father  of 
Orphans,  at  Burgdorf  and  Miichenbuchsee  Founder  of  the 
Popular  School,  at  Yverdun  the  Educator  of  Humanity; 
Man,  Christian  and  Citizen.  All  for  others,  Nothing  for 
Himself.     Peace  be  to  his  Ashes. 

To  CUB  Father  Pestalozzi 
Grateful  Aaeqau. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  459 

lar  order.  The  initiative  must  be  taken  by  the  child,  acting  upon 
the  motive  from  within.  The  spontaneity  of  the  child  regulates 
the  principle  of  self-activity.  Education  is  growth  from  the 
simple  to  the  complex. 

First  comes  the  reality,  the  thing  itself,  then  the  name;  first 
practice  and  then  principle.  Form,  number,  and  language  were 
the  content  of  his  subject-matter.  Observation  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil  must  precede  all  Education.  Pestalozzi  unified  in- 
struction around  the  common  objects  of  life.  He  began 
geography  in  the  school  yard,  and  history  in  life  of  the  Canton. 

His  influence  on  Education  has  been  profound.  Herbart 
and  Froebel  were  his  pupils.  The  school  systems  of  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Scandinavia  were  reformed  on  his  ideas.  Eng- 
land was  not  so  much  affected.  Teaching  of  Defectives  and 
Dependants  has  been  greatly  influenced  by  his  work. 
Jacotot.     1770. 

Of  all  the  inventors  of  peculiar  methods,  by  far  the  most 
important  was  Jacotot,  born  at  Dijon  in  1770.  His  statements 
and  ideas  were  paradoxical,  yet  a  number  of  pregnant  sugges- 
tions might  be  derived  from  them.  "All  human  beings  are 
equally  capable  of  learning,"  said  Jacotot.  The  student's  power 
of  learning  depends  upon  his  will,  and  where  there  is  no  will, 
there  is  no  capacity.  "Everyone  can  teach;  and,  moreover,  can 
teach  that  which  he  does  not  know  himself."  No  other  man 
ever  set  forth  such  a  paradox.  To  teach,  according  to  him,  is  to 
"cause  to  learn."  Teaching  and  learning  are,  therefore,  correla- 
tives ;  where  there  is  no  learning,  there  can  be  no  teaching. 

The  subject  matter  could  be  divided  into  three  classes : 
1,  Facts;  2,  Eeasonings  from  the  facts,  i.e.,  Science;  3,  Actions 
to  be  performed,  i.e.,  Arts.  Back  of  it  all  lay  the  sound  prin- 
ciple "that  the  highest  and  best  teaching  is  not  that  which  makes 
the  pupils  passive  recipients  of  other  people's  ideas,  but  that 
which  guides  and  encourages  the  pupils  in  working  for  them- 
selves, and  thinking  for  themselves.  The  pupils  must  owe  every- 
thing to  their  own  exertions,  which  it  is  the  function  of  the 
master  to  encourage  and  direct." 

Therefore,  the  teacher  is  not  so  much  a  teacher  as  a  trainer. 
Another  maxim  of  his  is  that  "All  is  in  All" ;  that  is,  that  all 
knowledge  is  connected.    Here  lies  the  germ  of  correlation.    His 


460  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

four  Commands  are  interesting  and  helpful:     Learn;  Kepeat; 
Eeflect;  Verify.    In  his  school  at  Dijon  he  sought  to  carry  out 
these  principles  with  more  or  less  success. 
Herbart,  1776-1841. 

Herbart  was  the  only  one  who  was  interested  in  education- 
ally working  out  the  ideas  of  others.  He  was  the  first  one  to 
place  Psychology  on  mechanical,  experimental,  and  mathematical 
bases.  He  especially  developed  Pestalozzi's  fundamental  idea 
of  Perception  by  Intuition,  under  the  name  of  Apperception. 
He  built  upon  and  supplemented  the  work  of  Pestalozzi. 

The  Herbartian  Movement  is  the  Movement  of  the  educa- 
tional work  to-day.  Most  of  his  theories  were  promulgated 
while  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Education  at  the  Universities 
of  Gottingen  and  Konigsberg.  Herbart's  Psychological  works 
rounded  up  the  Movement  begun  by  Locke,  Eousseau,  and 
Pestalozzi, 

The  Psychology  prevailing  in  his  time  was,  however,  the 
"Faculty  Psychology"  of  Aristotle.  To-day,  of  course,  many 
of  his  ideas  have  been  re-interpreted  under  the  "New  Psychol- 
ogy," the  Unitar}'  Psychology,  as  opposed  to  the  Faculty  or 
Divisional  Psychology,  though  Herbart  himself  took  the  first 
step  in  this  direction,  by  substituting  the  conception  of  the  soul 
as  a  unit  for  the  idea  of  the  soul  with  higher  and  lower  capaci- 
ties entirely  distinct  from  each  other. 

The  mind  is  blanlc  at  birth,  possessing  but  one  power,  that 
of  entering  into  relation  with  its  environment  through  the 
nervous  system.  It  acquires  a  content,  not  through  the  develop- 
ment of  the  inlierent  faculties,  but  through  presentations, 
through  ideas  resulting  from  its  own  experiences.  It  is  inher- 
ently neither  good  nor  bad. 

Monroe  writes:  "The  mind  or  soul  develops  one  way  or 
the  other  according  to  external  influences,  that  is,  according  to 
what  it  receives  in  the  way  of  presentations  and  the  manner  of 
their  combinations.  Two  corollaries  of  tremendous  importance 
to  education  follow:  (1)  The  chief  characteristic  of  the  mind 
is  its  power  of  assimilation;  (2)  education,  which  determines 
what  presentations  the  mind  receives,  and  also  the  maimer  in 
which  they  are  combined  into  higher  mental  processes,  is  the 
chief  determining  force  in  shaping  the  mind  and  character." 


TIIK  TTISTORY  OF  RELTfUOUS  EDUCATION  461 

llorbai-tian  Societies  exist  everywhere  to-day,  discussing  his 
principles  and  applying  them  to  Education. 

Froehel,  1826. 

Froebel  did  not  have  the  genius  of  Pestalozzi,  nor  his  insight, 
nor  was  he,  strictly  speaking,  a  Psychologist.  He  had  a  broad, 
philosophic  outlook,  however,  and  occupied  a  middle  ground. 
He  saw  the  meaning  of  Pestalozzi's  principles,  and  applied  them 
to  the  period  of  Infancy  and  the  Kindergarten. 

His  great  educational  system  was  marked  out  and  his  im- 
portant book  published  before  he  ever  had  practical  experience. 
His  main  ideas  are  contained  in  his  Education  of  Max,  pub- 
lished in  1826.  He  is  rather  difficult  to  understand  and  inter- 
pret, because  of  his  mystical,  symbolic,  and  transcendental  view 
of  Education.  He  is  intensely  religious  in  all  his  writings,  but 
rather  of  the  Pantheistic  type. 

From  the  Scientific  point  of  view  his  ideas  are  but  the  prin- 
ciples of  evolution  in  discovering  the  harmony  of  the  universe 
in  relation  to  the  individual.  Froebel  organized  the  games  and 
plays  of  children,  so  that  they  really  became  educative.  He 
summoned  the  inherent  activity  to  stimulate  the  physical  and 
spiritual  instincts. 

He  organized  plays  under  Gifts,  Occupations,  and  Xature 
Studies,  which  are  the  fundamental  ideas  underlying  the  kinder- 
garten of  to-day.  Gifts  were  the  simple  forms,  as  cubes,  etc., 
giving  notions  of  space,  size,  and  relativity.  The  Occupations 
were  modelling,  paper  folding,  etc.,  emphasizing  the  side  of  self- 
expression.    Hand  Work  and  Manual  Training  began  with  him. 

The  Sociological  Tendency. 

^Yith  the  Psychological  Tendency  the  approach  was  from 
the  side  of  practice ;  with  the  Sociological,  it  was,  of  course,  from 
the  social  side  of  life.  The  two  processes  are  not  antagonistic, 
but  sound  only  a  different  viewpoint.  The  former  was  interested, 
not  so  much  in  what  social  life  did  as  in  the  process,  how  it 
could  be  done.  Now  Education  considered  the  harmonious  de- 
velopment of  the  individual.  Froebel's  ideas  were  popularly 
associated  with  the  Socialists  in  1848,  and  even  kindergartens 
were  closed  by  the  government.     Again,  a  very  much  greater 


462  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

influence  was  now  seen  in  the  subject-matter  and  material  of 
Education. 

There  was  a  larger  choice  of  material  to  aid  the  child  in 
preparing  for  life.  Hence  there  was  such  an  abundance  of  sub- 
jects offered  that  the  question  of  Educational  Values  arose.  Be- 
fore 1875  History  was  not  even  a  definite  subject  in  colleges. 
Less  and  less  emphasis  was  now  being  set  on  the  linguistic 
heritage  of  the  past,  and  more  and  more  on  the  knowledge  of 
social  environment  and  social  institutions,  and  in  this  way  the 
tendency  arose  to  minimize  the  old  Humanistic  element. 
Herbert  Spencer,  1820-1903. 

However  Scientists  and  Sociologists  may  differ  in  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  of  the  Curriculum,  their  point  of  view  is  the 
same — "What  knowledge  is  of  most  worth?"  In  the  case  of 
Herbert  Spencer,  this  relation  between  the  two  tendencies  in 
thought  was  so  intimate  that  he  represents  the  two  aspects. 

Herbert  Spencer  was  one  of  the  clearest  thinkers  of  this 
generation,  and  in  his  criticisms  of  Educational  Values  he  rep- 
resents the  culmination  of  the  Naturalistic  Tendency  in  Educa- 
tion, but  now  Nature  includes  society,  and  the  social  factor  is 
one  of  the  most  important. 

Education  is  the  preparation  for  complete  living,  so  that 
"How  to  live  is  the  great  question  for  us."  Objections  have  been 
made  to  this  statement  of  the  question,  as  being  too  utilitarian 
a  standard.  It  has  been  stated  that  Education  is  not  a  prepara- 
tion for  life,  but  is  life.     This,  however,  is  but  a  play  on  words. 

Spencer's  writings  have  been  voluminous.  In  magazines 
and  especially  in  his  book  on  Education  he  goes  into  the  ques- 
tion of  Values  in  great  detail,  covering  ( 1 )  Physiology,  Hygiene, 
etc.  (2)  Economics,  as  Food,  Clothing,  Shelter,  etc.  (3) 
Eearing  of  Offspring.  (4)  Social  and  Political  life.  (5) 
Aesthetics,  including  Literature,  Linguistics,  Art,  Architecture, 
etc.  Spencer  meant  these  to  be  studied  at  the  same  time,  and 
urged  that  culture  should  be  the  heritage  of  all,  not  merely  of 
the  few.  This  work  on  "Education"  is  one  of  the  books  that 
every  teacher  should  read  in  full.  It  is  almost  the  masterpiece 
to-day. 

He  best  of  all  expressed  Pestalozzi's  principles :  (a)  Educa- 
tion must  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,     (h)  From 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELKslIOUS  EDUCATION  463 

the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  (c)  The  genesis  of  knowledge  in 
the  individual  follows  the  same  general  course  as  in  the  race. 
This  is  the  "Culture-Epoch  Theory."  (d)  Education  must  be 
from  the  empirical  to  Ihe  rational,  (c)  In  Education  the  pro- 
cess of  self-education  should  be  insisted  upon,  i.e..  Self-activity. 
(/)  Education  should  be  made  pleasurable,  i.e.,  Interest.  Spen- 
cer approves  of  the  Inductive  Method  of  Bacon.  Also  of  the 
continuity  of  Education  and  object-teaching,  (g)  Develop- 
ment comes  from  expression  more  than  from  acquisition.  He 
considers,  in  the  third  part  of  his  book,  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  the  Natural  Punishment  plan. 

Modern  Educational  School  Systems. 

Our  modern  school  system  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  Keforma- 
tion  and  the  forces  that  were  set  going  in  that  Period  of  the 
Renaissance.  State  control,  State  supervision,  and  State  sup- 
port have  been  developed  with  more  or  less  system  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  world,  though  the  several  important  countries 
difPer  slightly  in  the  method. 

Germany.  State  schools  were  first  developed  in  Germany. 
The  first  clear  recognition  of  the  conception,  that  Education  lies 
at  the  basis  of  prosperity  and  the  social  happiness  of  a  people, 
goes  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Frederick  the  Great.  In  his 
General  School  Eegulations  in  1763  at  the  close  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  school  attendance  was  made  compulsory.  He  pro- 
vided training  and  compensation  for  teachers,  in  their  work,  and 
State  supervision  of  the  schools.  By  1794  the  transition  to  the 
new  basis  was  complete.  From  1808  to  1811,  under  von  Hum- 
boldt and  von  Schuckmann,  the  Elementary  Schools  were  revo- 
lutionized by  the  introduction  of  Pestalozzian  methods. 

A  general  revision  of  the  Prussian  school  laws  took  place 
in  1835,  1854,  and  1872.  All  of  these  revisions  looked  towards 
the  more  general  support  of  schools  by  the  central  government, 
and  towards  centralization  in  supervision  and  system. 

France.  Agitation  for  public  education  in  France  began 
with  the  campaign  against  the  Jesuits  and  their  expulsion  in 
1764.     Little  was  accomplished,  however. 

In  1795  the  National  Normal  Schools  and  numerous  sec- 
ondary schools,  the   Central   Colleges,   were  established.     Tho 


464  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

condition  was  still  very  chaotic,  and  they  did  not  secure  uni- 
versal, compulsory,  free  education. 

In  1806  was  established  the  University  of  France,  which  in- 
cluded in  itself,  practically  as  a  department  of  the  national  gov- 
ernment, all  secondary  and  higher  education.  Elementary  Edu- 
cation was  neglected.  In  1833,  under  Guizot,  Minister  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  a  law  was  passed  establishing  Elementary 
Schools  in  practically  every  community.  Primary  Education 
was  made  free  in  1881,  and  compulsory  in  1882.  The  present 
system  of  schools,  centralized  and  controlled  by  the  State,  dates 
from  1886.  Since  1901  all  religious  congregations  have  been 
required  to  obtain  authorization  and  legal  recognition  in  order 
to  carry  on  educational  work.  Since  1903  practically  all  re- 
ligious schools  have  been  closed. 

England.  In  England  the  transition  to  State  control  has 
been  longest  delayed  and  is  still  far  from  complete.  The  first 
public  support  of  Education  came  in  the  form  of  grants  to 
various  philanthropic-religious  school  societies.  In  1833,  after 
a  long  controversy  as  to  whether  the  government  had  any  right 
at  all  to  interfere  in  connection  with  education,  the  English 
government  continued  to  grant  annually  an  increasing  amount 
to  the  schools  maintained  by  the  National  Society  and  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  School  Societies.  Government  inspection  was 
granted,  but  none  but  clerg}Tnen  were  appointed  instructors. 

Grants  for  teachers,  for  books,  for  school  supplies,  were 
added  within  a  few  years.  In  1870  the  first  Elementary  Schools 
were  established,  organized,  supported,  and  supervised  by  the 
State.    These  were  the  Board  Schools,  controlled  by  local  Boards. 

Until  1903  no  Voluntary  or  Church  schools  were  permitted 
to  participate  in  funds  from  local  rates.  There  are  now  the 
two  systems  of  schools.  State  or  Board  Schools  and  Church  or 
Voluntary  Schools,  going  on  side  by  side.  As  yet  the  Voluntary 
Schools  are  more  numerous  by  far  than  the  Board  Schools. 

The  United  States.  The  development  of  the  public  school 
system  in  the  United  States  centers  around  New  England,  and 
especially  Massachusetts.  All  lines  of  advance  are  typified  by 
that  State.  Three  periods  exist,  though  they  have  no  definite 
limits. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  4(i0 

(1)  The  Early  Colonial  Period. — In  this  there  was  a 
close  imitation  of  the  English  system,  modified  only  by  the  early 
Colonial  life.  It  lasted  well  into  the  eighteenth  century  and 
was  strongly  religious.  The  law  of  1647  established  a  system  of 
schools  in  Massachusetts,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  (a) 
Town  or  Elementary  Schools  in  every  town  of  fifty  families, 
known  as  "Reading  and  Writing"  schools.  No  text  books  were 
used  except  the  old  Horn  Primer.  There  was  no  definite 
method,  the  rote  system  being  in  vogue.  These  schools  were 
often  called  Dame  Schools  or  Kitchen  Schools,  because  taught 
by  old  women  constituents  in  the  country  kitchens.  The  better 
secondary  schools  were  taught  by  masters  and  supported  by  tui- 
tion fees,  donations  from  town  selectmen,  taxes,  gifts,  etc.  (h) 
Grammar  Schools,  which  were  like  the  English  Latin  schools. 
Tlicy  prepared  for  college  and  were  similar  to  the  public  schools 
of  to-day.  They  studied  only  the  Latin  language  and  Grammar. 
There  was  one  in  every  town  of  one  hundred  families  at  first, 
and  later  on  when  interest  declined,  only  in  every  town  of  two 
hundred  families.  At  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  Grammar 
Schools  had  almost  died  out.  (e)  The  Colleges,  which  were  pro- 
vided for  in  1636  by  a  bequest  of  John  Harvard.  Harvard  Col- 
lege was  purely  a  religious  institution,  under  Church  influence. 

(2)  From  the  middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  to 

THE  third  decade  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CeNTTJRY,  THAT  IS  TO 
SAY,  UP  TO  1830,  AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE  HORACE  MaNN  MOVE- 
MENT.— A  change  now  came  about,  owing  to  the  scattering  of 
the  population  into  country  districts,  as  the  fear  of  Indians  died 
out.  There  was  a  lessening  of  religious  interest,  and  a  decline 
of  the  influence  of  the  clergy,  as  a  profession.  There  was  a 
growth  of  industry  and  commerce,  as  well  as  a  growth  of 
democracy  and  a  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  old  aristocracy. 
Each  grade  of  schools  was  affected.  (a)  Elementary 
Schools.  In  place  of  the  old  town  Elementary  school  there  rose 
the  District  school.  It  was  often  a  school  on  wheels,  moving 
about  every  few  years  to  other  districts.  The  results  were  short 
terms  and  poor  teaching  in  miserable  school  buildings,  some- 
times not  costing  more  than  $10  to  build.  It  was  the  time  of 
"the  little  red  school  house."  (h)  The  Grammar  or  Latin 
Schools.     These,  too,  declined  as  they  were  squadroned  out,  as 


466  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

moving  schools.  As  utilitarian  and  material  ideas  grew,  these 
schools  grew  unpopular  also.  The  Academies  arose  in  their 
place.  The  new  purpose  of  the  Academy  was  to  equip  young 
men  and  women  with  a  broader  culture  for  life.  Music,  Science, 
and  History  were  added.  They  were  private,  or  semi-private, 
while  the  Latin  schools  were  public.  Many  Academies  were 
Home  or  Boarding  Schools,  (c)  Higher  Education.  New  col- 
leges were  established  which  were  non-religious,  as  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  the  University  of  Virginia,  etc. 

(3)  Third  Period.  From  1830  on. — This  was  a  Period 
of  Centralization  in  Industry,  and  shortly  also  in  population  as 
well.  Stronger  schools  were  provided  in  town  centers,  especially 
in  factory  towns.  The  Infant  schools,  founded  in  England,  were 
reproduced  in  this  country.  It  was  the  Period  of  Lancaster  and 
his  schools,  of  which  we  shall  speak  later. 

Horace  Mann.  1796-1859. — In  one  way  we  might  term 
Horace  Mann  the  Father  of  the  splendid  system  of  American 
schools.  As  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  School  Board,  he 
planned  their  system  and  developed  it.  Chairs  of  Education 
were  established  in  several  colleges.  State  superintendents  were 
appointed  after  the  system  in  Massachusetts.  Educational  mag- 
azines were  published,  and  voluminous  educational  literature 
appeared. 

Commissioners  were  sent  abroad  by  several  States.  Com- 
mon school  funds  were  established.  These  educational  methods 
affected  the  several  types  of  schools:  (a)  Graded  Schools  were 
substituted  for  the  District  Schools,  just  as  the  District  Schools 
were  for  the  Dame  Schools.  In  1824  and  1826  supervision  of 
all  schools  under  selectmen  of  the  towns  was  provided  for. 

Much  of  Horace  Mann's  work  was  directed  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  old  system,  which  was  not  accomplished  until  1882,  when 
the  District  School  plan  was  finally  buried  everywhere. 

(&)  High  Schools.  The  new  stage  in  secondary  education 
took  place  in  the  Academy.  The  Boston  High  School,  the  first 
one,  was  started  in  1821.  In  ten  years  a  law  was  passed  for  a 
system  of  high  schools. 

(c)  State  Universities  and  Colleges  became  general,  and 
our  modern  school  system,  compulsory,  and  with  free  education 
for  all,  sprang  into  being. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  467 

The  Industrial  Tendency. 

\'ery  recently  the  Political  and  Economic  phases  of  the 
Sociological  Tendency  have  become  dominantly  industrial.  The 
first  institution  for  higher  education  in  engineering  and  other 
scientific  lines  was  the  Austrian  Military  School  at  Vienna,  es- 
tablished by  Maria  Theresa  in  1747. 

West  Point,  in  1802,  was  our  first  school  for  scientific  and 
engineering  instruction.  Until  very  recently  training  for  citi- 
zenship has  been  assigned  as  the  chief  function  of  State  schools, 
and  that  along  political  and  social  lines. 

Now  Commercial  and  Industrial  Schools  of  every  kind  have 
sprung  into  existence.  In  our  large  urban  communities,  the 
foreign  immigrants  are  given  the  necessary  rudiments  of  Edu- 
cation.    Economic  productiveness  has  been  increased. 

France,  of  all  nations,  has  made  the  most  radical  changes, 
agricultural  instruction  being  given  in  every  rural  school,  and 
manual  and  technical  training  in  every  urban  school.  Other 
countries  have  followed.  In  the  United  States  progress  is  being 
made  along  two  lines — in  the  direct  establishment  of  industrial 
schools,  together  with  the  opening  of  evening  schools;  and  in 
the  modified  character  of  manual  training  instruction,  its  object 
for  the  most  part  being  the  training  of  the  senses  and  the  devel- 
oping of  the  power  to  work  with  objective  material. 

Sloyd  work,  appealing  to  the  interest  of  the  child  through 
construction,  has  been  widely  introduced.  Broad  ideals  as  to 
the  function  of  Education,  to  fit  the  individual  for  every  phase 
and  need  of  life  in  his  own  personal  environment,  is  the  last  step 
in  the  evolution  of  Educational  Ideals. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  causes  led  to  the  Third  Renaissance? 

2.  \Miat  Two  Types  of  Education  now  appeared,  and  what  were  the 

distinguishing  characteristics  of  each? 

3.  What  Religious  Orders  were  leaders  in  the  Former  Type,  and  how? 

4.  Tell  of  the  Jesuits  and  their  contribution  to  Education. 

5.  ^Vhat  great  Order  was  opposed  to  them? 

6.  In  the  Realistic  Type  of  Education,  name  some  of  the  "Innovators" 

and  give  the  contribution  of  each  to  Education. 

7.  In  what  way  were  Bacon,  Mulcaster,  and  Commenius  representa- 

tive of  the  Early  Scientific  Tendency? 


468  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

8.  What  was  "the  According  to  Nature"  Tendency,  and  what  three 

men  preached  it? 

9.  How  did  "the  Psychological  Tendency"  differ  from  it? 

10.  Show  liow  Pestalozzi  has  influenced  our  Sunday  Schools  of  to-day. 

11.  Tell  of  Herbart  and  of  Froebel. 

12.  How  did  Herbert  Spencer  represent  "the  Sociological  Tendency"? 

13.  Portray    briefly    Educational    Development    in    Germany,    France, 

England,  and  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

HISTORY   OF  THE   SUNDAY  SCHOOL   MOVEMENT. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

•Pedagogical  Bible  School.    Haslett.    pp.  39-64. 

IIisTOKY  OF  Education.    Monroe,     pp.  T22-729. 

SiNDAY  Schools  ok  the  American  Chukcii.     Michael.     All. 

The  Modeun  Sunday  School.     Cope.     Ch.  3. 

The  I'uiNcirLEs  of  Religious  Education.     Butler,     p.  Gff. 

Early  Origin  of  the  Sunday  School  Movement. 

In  his  important  book  noted  above,  the  Rev.  Oscar  S.  Michael, 
then  rector  of  Old  St.  John's  Church,  Philadelphia,  remarks  that 
"the  origin  of  the  Sunday  School  may  be  traced  directly  to  the 
fruits  of  the  English  Reformation.  The  ancient  parochial  sys- 
tem, before  then  universally  in  operation,  had  not  only  supplied 
the  religious  instruction,  but  it  had  provided  all  the  education 
for  the  young.  The  parish  from  an  educational  standpoint  was 
practically  a  school,  in  which  the  rector  was  headmaster.  Be- 
sides his  ordinary  assistants  he  had  the  help  of  monasteries  and 
religious  bodies.  The  abolition  of  these  and  the  breaking  up  of 
the  parochial  system  of  Protestantism  naturally  disturbed  the 
very  foundations  of  educational  work.  The  English  Church  re- 
formers, in  the  endeavor  to  reorganize  the  old  system,  while  they 
fortunately  did  not  imitate  Luther  in  the  matter  of  ecclesiastical 
polity,  unfortunately  did  not  catch  the  educational  inspiration  of 
Luther,  by  whose  burning  zeal  for  popular  enlightenment  the 
school-master  was  introduced  into  every  cottage  in  Germany 
and  whose  schools  laid  the  foundations  of  his  country's  intel- 
lectual greatness." 

While  the  Sunday  School  arose  from  the  exigencies  of  the 
English  Reformation,  it  was  by  no  means  the  offspring  of 
Protestant  non-conformity.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  bitterly 
opposed  by  the  Calvinistic  Puritans.     Hence,  it  at  first  made 


470  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

little  progress  in  Scotland.  The  Scotch  reformers,  like  the  con- 
tinental leaders,  had  been  able  in  their  way  to  keep  fairly  intact 
the  old  parish  system,  though  episcopacy  was  eliminated,  and  had 
succeeded  in  maintaining  somewhat  more  effective  means  of  edu- 
cation than  their  southern  neighbors.  The  Sunday  Schools 
introduced  what  appeared  to  the  stricter  Puritans  to  be  sacri- 
lege. As  is  well  known,  they  were  originally  designed  to  be 
means  of  general  education,  and  not  simply  of  religious  instruc- 
tion, which  has  only  quite  recently  been  divorced  from  secular 
training.  The  idea  of  ordinary  general  school  work  on  the 
Sabbath  seemed  to  the  Puritan  to  promote  a  breach  of  the 
Fourth  Commandment.  Again,  the  employment  of  lay-teachers 
appeared  to  threaten  the  integrity  of  the  ministerial  calling. 

Says  Haslett :  "Many  claimants  for  the  first  Sunday  School 
organization  are  to  be  found.  Sunday  Schools  were  organized 
in  this  country  as  early  as  the  year  1659,  and  in  Europe  much 
earlier.  Luther  founded  his  catechetical  schools  about  1529, 
and  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  instituted  and  maintained 
a  system  of  schools  where  the  boys  and  the  girls  were  kept  sep- 
arate and  each  division  subdivided  into  classes  and  a  minister 
provided  for  each  class  with  the  assistance  of  a  layman  for  the 
boys  and  a  woman  for  the  girls,  a  few  years  later." 

The  beginning  of  the  modern  Sunday  School  movement  was 
marked  by  the  familiar  date,  1780,  and  the  work  of  Eobert 
Eaikes.  For  a  century  or  more  before  this,  there  had  been  many 
individual  and  some  associated  efforts  to  teach  the  Bible,  both  to 
children  and  to  adults;  but  there  was  lacking  any  general  con- 
viction that  this  work  was  a  part  of  the  duty  of  the  Church; 
there  had  been  no  sense  of  a  common  Christian  obligation.  The 
efforts  had  been  simply  the  results  of  individual  conviction.  A 
gradual  awakening  to  a  sense  of  duty,  to  a  responsibility  for  the 
religious  education  of  the  young,  was  witnessed  in  the  second 
period. 

Eobert  Eaikes  was  an  inhabitant  of  Gloucester,  England. 
He  was  a  printer  and  editor  by  trade,  and  a  member  of  the  Es- 
tablished Church.  His  connection  with  the  Sunday  School 
Movement,  as  practically  founder  of  the  modern  Sunday  School, 
was,  he  states,  entirely  by  accident.  Walking  in  the  suburbs  of 
Gloucester  one  morning  on  business,  among  the  pin  factory  peo- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  Sl'NDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  471 

pic,  he  noticed  the  condition  of  the  chihiren  on  the  street.  Talk- 
ing with  a  woman  of  the  neigliborhood,  he  learned  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  community  on  Sunday,  and  resolved  to  attempt  to 
better  their  sad  state,  and  to  provide  a  check  for  the  profanation 
of  the  Lord's  Day. 

He  accordingly  hired  four  ladies  to  teach  on  Sunday,  in- 
structing all  children  who  were  sent  to  them,  he  agreeing  to  pay 
the  teachers  each  one  a  shilling  a  week.  The  school  was  opened 
in  1780.  The  instruction  was  in  reading  and  the  Church  of 
England  Catechism.  The  children  were  required  to  come  with 
clean  hands,  face,  and  combed  hair.  Their  ages  varied  from 
six  to  fourteen  years.  The  more  studious  and  well-behaved 
children  received  Bibles,  Testaments,  shoes,  and  clothing.  The 
school  assembled  at  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  continued 
until  twelve,  beginning  again  at  one,  with  the  study  of  a  reading 
lesson  followed  by  Church,  and  school  again  until  half-past  five. 
This  continued  every  Sunday. 

Twenty  pupils  were  allowed  to  each  teacher,  and  the  sexes 
were  kept  separate.  Each  group  of  twenty  was  divided  into 
four  classes,  those  superior  in  attainment  being  placed  as  leaders 
to  teach  the  others  their  letters  and  to  hear  them  recite. 

Cope  notes  that  "there  are  four  easily  distinguished  steps 
of  progress  in  the  history  of  the  Sunday  School  in  this  second 
period.  They  are :  First,  the  exploitation  of  the  idea  by  Eobert 
Raikcs ;  second,  the  adoption  of  the  school  by  the  Church ;  third, 
the  development  of  the  school  by  means  of  associational  organi- 
zation, and,  fourth,  the  recognition  of  the  school  as  an  educa- 
tional institution. 

But  the  importance  of  the  work  of  Eobert  Eaikes  did  not 
consist  in  the  inauguration  of  these  schools  in  Gloucester;  oth- 
ers had  done  the  same  thing  elsewhere ;  its  value  lay  in  the  agi- 
tation which  he  began  in  1783  for  the  establishment  of  such 
schools  everywhere.  But  he  did  not  do  this  rashly;  he  worked 
three  years  with  his  own  schools  before  he  published  an  account 
of  them  in  his  paper,  The  Gloucester  Journal.  The  many 
inquiries  he  then  received  led  to  the  publication  of  his  plans, 
first  in  the  provincial  papers  and  then  in  some  London  maga- 
zines. His  plan  was  widely  adopted.  The  schools  were  called 
"charity  schools."     They   gave  their  attention   principally  to 


472  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

general  instruction  in  the  rudiments  of  learning,  for  they  were 
obliged  to  take  the  place  of  any  public  school  system.  Without 
doubt  these  schools  gave  birth  to  the  modern  English  system  of 
common  elementary  schools.  Many  of  his  type  of  "charity  Sun- 
day Schools"'  still  exist  in  England;  there  are  Sunday  Schools, 
especially  in  the  North,  where  adults  may  learn  to  read  and 
write,  matters  concerning  which  they  would  know  nothing 
without  these  schools.  The  English  people  have  never  entirely 
overcome  the  notion  that  the  Sunday  School  is  for  the  desti- 
tute classes  only. 

Eaikes'  schools  met  with  bitter  opposition  in  some  quar- 
ters, especially  from  the  clergy.  But  he  advocated  them  every- 
where by  means  of  the  press,  and  in  1785,  in  London,  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Sunday  Schools  was  organized.  This  Society 
paid  out  in  its  lifetime  $20,000  in  wages  to  Sunday  School 
teachers. 

The  movement  was  bitterly  antagonized  in  Scotland,  al- 
though the  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  had  passed  a 
decree  in  1560  that  the  Second  Service  should  be  given  to  wor- 
ship and  the  catechising  of  children  and  others  uninstructed. 
The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  called  the  bishops  together  to 
see  what  could  be  done  to  stop  it.  They  did  not  stop  it.  The 
interest  in  Sunday  Schools  increased  with  great  rapidity.  And 
while  the  Sunday  School  movement  was  at  first  not  a  Church  or 
a  public  affair,  but  an  individual  undertaking,  yet  certain 
Church  officials  gave  it  their  approval  and  from  the  small  be- 
ginning grew  a  world-wide  enterprise. 

The  spread  of  the  great  Sunday  School  system  was  marvel- 
lous. In  four  years  250,000  pupils  had  been  enrolled.  In  twenty 
years,  Bible  and  Tract  Societies  and  Foreign  Missions  had  been 
established.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  now  31,000,000  schol- 
ars in  Christian  Sunday  Schools. 

The  Beginning  of  the  Sunday  School  Movement  in  America. 

"Before  the  Revolution,"  writes  Michael,  "the  rising  gen- 
erations were  gradually  lapsing  into  ignorance  and  irreligion. 
In  the  larger  centers  of  population  the  immorality  of  the  young 
was  long  a  theme  of  reproach.  The  traditional  means  of  relig- 
ious training  were  the  day  school  with  its  Saturday  session,  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  473 

catechetical  service  (ordinarily  on  Sunday  afternoons),  and 
home  instruction,  which  usually  centered  in  a  household  relig- 
ious gathering  on  Saturday  nights.  The  day  school  was 
nieagerly  effective  in  the  colonies  except  in  certain  parts  of  New 
England  and  Xew  York  state.  School  education  was  hardly 
in  fashion  even  among  the  gentry,  many  of  whom  could  neither 
read  nor  write;  and  its  extent  was  limited.  Very  few  of  the 
children  of  the  poor  had  learned  their  letters;  hence  there  was 
little  knowledge  of  religious  literature  of  any  sort.  The  cate- 
chetical service  at  its  best  reached  only  as  far  as  parish  influ- 
ences went.  When  parish  lines  became  eliminated,  its  general 
efficiency  was  greatly  reduced,  and  many  children  slipped  away 
from  the  care  of  the  parochial  authorities,  thus  losing  the  edu- 
cational benefits  of  the  parish.  Then,  too,  the  catechetical  ser- 
vice presupposes  day  school  or  other  instruction.  At  best  it  is 
but  a  review  in  open  Church  of  what  has  been  learned  outside. 
When  this  has  been  deficient,  its  work  necessarily  declines. 
Furthermore,  the  dearth  of  the  clergy,  the  indifference  and  in- 
aptitude for  this  work  of  those  in  the  field,  and  the  growing  in- 
difference of  the  laity  to  educational  advantages  in  general,  had 
practically  nullified  the  effect  of  this  Service.  Before  the  eigh- 
teenth century  it  had  practically  been  abandoned;  few  children 
attended.  Those  who  did  were  often  guilty  of  irreverent,  dis- 
orderly behaviour,  which  not  even  the  physical  force  of  the  sex- 
ton or  verger  could  restrain.  And,  finally,  family  religion  had 
for  years  before  the  Revolution  been  in  a  state  of  decay.  The 
injunction  to  the  parents  and  sponsors  of  the  young,  which  the 
Church  had  thought  best  to  write  in  her  earliest  reformed  lit- 
urgy— namely,  that  'they  should  provide  for  the  learning  of 
the  Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Ten  Commandments  and 
all  other  things  which  a  Christian  ought  to  know  and  believe,' 
was  widely  neglected." 

Just  after  the  Revolution. 

]\Iichael  adds:  "At  the  close  of  the  War  of  Independence, 
therefore,  organized  Christianity  was  faced  with  a  serious  prob- 
lem. The  worst  phase  of  it  was  the  decay  of  the  moral  fiber  of 
Christians.  Bishop  White,  first  bishop  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
patriarcli  of  the  early  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America, 


474  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

in  his  writings  on  Sunday  Schools,  speaks  of  the  'streams  of  cor- 
ruption that  polluted  our  religion  at  its  very  depths.'  The  nox- 
ious effects  of  this  moral  laxity  showed  most  banefully  in  the 
development  of  the  young.  The  religious  and  moral  degeneracy 
of  the  children  was  appalling.  On  Sundays,  the  prayers  of  the 
clergy  and  the  praise  of  the  not  numerous  worshippers  in  the 
Churches  of  the  larger  cities  were  often  drowned  by  the  riotous 
and  blasphemous  clamor  of  the  younger  element  outside. 

"It  was  this  latter  phase  of  the  problem  that  troubled  our 
Church  leaders  most.  Events  showed  that  Bishop  White  had 
realized  its  tremendous  difficulties  and  had  meditated  on  plans 
for  its  solution  before  his  consecration  to  the  episcopate  by 
English  bishops  in  1789.  During  his  stay  abroad  for  episcopal 
consecration,  Bishop  White  had  seen  and  been  impressed  with 
the  work  of  Raikes'  Sunday  Schools,  which  then  were  just  be- 
ginning to  show  the  fruits  of  their  usefulness  and  to  attract 
wide  public  notice.  In  1788,  shortly  after  his  return  to  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  was  rector  of  the  United  Parishes,  he  pro- 
posed a  plan  to  the  vestry  of  Christ  Church  for  the  organization 
of  Sunday  Schools  according  to  the  Raikes  pattern.  The  ves- 
try adopted  the  plan,  but  deferred  its  practical  execution  until 
funds  and  better  organization  should  be  at  hand. 

"Bishop  Wliite  then  detailed  the  scheme  to  the  congrega- 
tion and  presented  it  in  the  light  of  moral  improvement  rather 
than  of  spiritual  regeneration.  In  this  way  it  attracted  several 
rich  men  who  were  not  confirmed  Churchmen.  Christ  Church 
at  that  time  was  the  gathering  place  of  many  such.  The  plan 
deeply  interested  Benjamin  Rush,  among  others.  These  men 
drew  in  others  without  the  parish  sphere  of  influence — notably 
Quakers — and  in  1790  formed  the  First  Day  Society.  Bishop 
White  was  chosen  its  president  and  a  number  of  First  Day 
or  Sunday  Schools  were  at  once  started  in  various  parts  of  Phila- 
delphia." 

Similar  societies  now  formed  under  the  denominations. 
The  Presbyterians  formed  the  society  known  as  the  Evangelical 
Society  in  1808.  All  of  these  schools  met  in  buildings  other 
than  the  Church,  usually  rooms  hired  in  town  or  loaned  in  pri- 
vate houses.  Attempts  were  made  by  Churchmen  to  found 
schools  in  other  towns,  but  the  opposition  of  the  Puritans  was  so 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  475 

gvcnt  that  in  many  instances  the  Chnrchmen  had  to  desist  from 
the  attempt.  In  1803,  a  Church  Sunday  School  was  started  at 
Hudson,  New  York,  but  was  soon  given  up  under  the  opposition, 
and  as  late  as  1815  a  second  attempt  was  frustrated. 

In  the  Reformed  Dutch  circles  of  New  York,  schools  were 
started  in  1803.  In  1810  the  First  Day  School  Movement  was 
inaufjurated  in  Boston.  Similar  results  developed  in  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.,  and  Providence,  E.  I.,  but  up  to  1814  none  of  the  religious 
bodies  of  America  in  the  corporate  capacity  had  taken  up  the 
Sunday  School,  but  the  work  that  liad  been  done  was  individual 
and  spasmodic. 

"In  the  Fall  of  1814,"  writes  Michael,  "Jackson  Kemper 
and  James  ]\Iilncr,  Bishop  White's  assistant  clergy  at  Christ 
Church,  began  an  afternoon  Sunday  School  and  a  night  service 
at  Commissioners'  Hall  in  the  Northern  Liberties  of  Philadel- 
phia, which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  parish  of  St. 
John's,  N.  L.  This  was  the  first  school  officially  incorporated 
by  any  religious  organization  in  America,  and  preluded  the  gen- 
eral adoption  during  the  next  three  years  of  the  institution  in 
its  developed  form  by  most  of  the  church  organizations  in  the 
country.  Asa  Eaton  began  a  Sunday  School  at  Christ  Church, 
Boston,  in  the  Summer  of  1815,  which  was  the  first  of  the  exist- 
ing schools  in  New  England.  The  organizations,  like  the  Evan- 
gelical Society  of  Philadelphia,  expired  with  the  lament  that 
the  children  under  their  care  had  gone  over  to  the  Sunday 
Schools." 

In  1815  Christ  Church,  Boston,  and  in  1816  St.  George's 
and  Christ  Churches,  New  York  City,  inaugurated  Sunday 
Schools.  History  moved  rapidly.  In  1817  Bishop  White  in- 
fluenced the  formation  of  the  Philadelphia  Sunday  and  Adult 
Society,  chartered  as  a  State  Society  in  1819.  In  two  years  it 
had  spread  into  twelve  states,  having  2,653  teachers  and  20,000 
scholars.  At  first  it  was  interdenominational.  Many  Church 
societies  were  in  it,  but  the  leadership  passed  into  denomina- 
tional hands,  as  is  usual  in  such  attempts  at  amalgamation. 

In  1824,  steps  were  taken  that  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
American  Sunday  School  Union,  which  is  even  to-day  one  of  the 
greatest  centers  of  work  for  the  promotion  of  Sunday  School 
activity.     In  this  Union  the  Sunday  and  Adult  Society  had 


476  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

paramount  influence.  On  account  of  Methodist  opposition  the 
Union  was  unable  to  obtain  a  charter  until  1843. 

New  York  had  held  aloof  from  the  general  interdenomina- 
tional Society,  i.  e.  the  Sunday  and  Adult  Society,  and  in  1817 
had  formed  a  Church  Society,  known  as  The  New  York  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Sunday  School  Society,  under  whose  direction 
Sunday  Schools  were  at  once  begun  at  Trinity  Church  and  its 
Chapels  (St.  John's  and  St.  Paul's),  Grace  Church,  and  St. 
Mark's.  The  schools  were  successful  from  the  start.  Their 
membership  at  the  close  of  the  first  year  was  1250. 

While  New  York  was  thus  developing  Church  Sunday 
Schools,  Bishop  White  awoke  to  a  realization  of  the  disadvan- 
tages of  interdenominational  activity.  The  Church  leaders  who 
had  organized  the  Philadelphia  and  Adult  Society  were  soon 
relegated  to  positions  of  inferior  station  by  a  more  aggressive 
Puritan  influence  within  that  organization,  and  good-natured 
Churchmen  were  supplanted  by  more  rigorous  Presbyterians, 
though  the  business  policy  of  the  society  remained  non-partisan. 
Therefore,  representatives  of  the  Church  parishes  in  and  around 
Philadelphia,  without  withdrawing  from  the  latter,  formed  the 
Philadelphia  Protestant  Episcopal  Sunday  and  Adult  Society  in 
1817.  Its  chief  work  was  the  publication  and  sale  of  tracts, 
books,  and  periodicals,  written  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
Church. 

All  the  Sunday  Schools  in  Philadelphia  became  active  mem- 
bers of  the  new  society  and  added  others  in  the  state  at  some  dis- 
tance, like  those  of  Lancaster,  Wilkesbarre,  etc.,  and  some  even 
outside  the  state.  But  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Sunday  and 
Adult  Society  did  not  accomplish  very  much.  The  "non-sec- 
tarian" Union's  liberal  business  policy  for  several  years  had  its 
effect.  Churchmen  could  buy  fairly  suitable  tracts,  books  of 
devotion  and  religious  fiction,  and  other  Sunday  School  requi- 
sites in  much  greater  variety  and  much  more  cheaply  at  the 
Union  Depository  than  at  the  Church  establishment. 

The  New  York  Society,  aiming  chiefly  at  organization  and 
supporting  schools  under  Church  principles,  developed  enthu- 
siasm that  carried  it  through,  when  other  organizations  were 
lagging.  In  other  sections  of  the  United  States,  Sunday  Schools 
rapidly  developed.    In  the  South,  Bishop  Moore,  William  Meade, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  477 

and  Cliristopher  Gadson  were  active,  and  a  strong  society  was 
formed  by  Churchmen  at  Charleston,  S.  C. 

In  Ohio,  under  Bishop  Chase,  in  1819,  I.  N.  Whiting  trav- 
elled through  scattered  regions,  organizing  Sunday  Schools. 

In  Connecticut,  under  Bishop  Ilobart,  schools  were  also 
established  at  Trinity  Church,  New  Haven,  and  in  other  cen- 
ters. In  Rhode  Island,  the  Diocesan  Convention  acted  as  a  Sun- 
day School  Union. 

At  the  General  Convention  of  1826,  held  in  Pliiladelphia, 
various  Sunday  School  interests  were  consolidated  into  the 
General  Protestant  Episcopal  Sunday  School  Union,  the  initia- 
tive being  taken  by  the  Philadelphia  organization.  Bishops 
and  deputies  met  under  the  presidency  of  Bishop  White,  with 
Bishop  Ilobart  a  leading  spirit,  and  mapped  out  the  general 
organization  of  the  Union.  To  a  large  extent  it  was  to  follow 
the  plan  of  the  American  Sunday  School  Union  as  a  publication 
and  book  concern.  The  most  brilliant  young  men  were  enlisted 
in  the  cause,  especially  William  E.  Whittingham,  to  whose  in- 
spiring zeal  the  growth  of  the  Union  in  its  early  years  was  due. 
It  was  the  beginning  of  a  period  of  great  progress  in  the  Church. 

A  number  of  big  depositories,  with  agents  to  oversee  them 
in  strategic  centers,  were  established.  Large  quantities  of 
printed  matter  were  circulated.  Two  individual  periodicals 
were  published.  A  complete  printing  and  publishing  plant  was 
set  up  in  New  York  City  in  the  rear  of  Trinity  Church,  with  a 
spacious  four-story  building. 

The  picture  of  Whittingham  is  one  of  the  brightest  spots  in 
the  history  of  Church  Sunday  Schools.  Oscar  Michael  writes : 
"In  addition  to  the  immense  amount  of  work  entailed  in  the 
incipient  organization,  he  undertook  the  publication  of  a  series 
of  lesson  books  to  put  into  practical  operation  a  very  complete 
scheme  of  uniform  lessons,  outlined  by  him.  In  this  he  made 
use  of  some  of  the  material  prepared  by  Harry  Croswell  and 
others.  Besides  all  this  he  arranged  for  the  publication  of  the 
two  monthly  magazines  issued  by  the  Union,  assuming  their 
editorship  in  person.  For  these  manifold  duties,  which  might 
well  have  occupied  two  or  three  men  ordinarily  interested  in  the 
catise  promoted,  he  received  practically  no  stipend.  It  was  to 
him  truly  a  labor  of  love,  and  he  bravely  undertook  to  earn  a 


478  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

living  for  himself  by  accepting  the  chaplaincy  of  the  New  York 
Protestant  Episcopal  Charity  School,  where,  among  other  offices, 
he  preached  to  the  children  on  Sunday  afternoons  after  the  long 
Sunday  School  hours.  It  came  to  be  quite  a  fad  at  that  time  for 
New  Yorkers  and  strangers  visiting  the  city  to  hear  Whitting- 
ham  exhort  the  charity  scholars. 

"The  picture  of  the  tall,. gaunt  young  man,  six  feet  two  in 
height,  whose  clothes  hung  like  bags  from  his  ungainly  person; 
whose  irregular  features  were  styled  'mortal  ugly'  by  a  friend; 
who  long  after  graduation  from  the  seminary  continued  to  wear 
a  boy's  short  round-about  jacket,  with  a  boy's  broad  white  linen 
collar  (tied  with  a  black  ribbon)  over  it  to  the  shoulders,  about 
which  his  long  hair  fell  in  glossy  clusters;  who  amused  many  a 
stranger  by  his  nervous,  awkward  gestures,  but  whose  lustrous 
dark  eyes  gleamed  with  prophetic  fire — that  was  what  presented 
itself  when  this  early  Sunday  School  apostle  arose  to  pour  into 
the  ears  of  his  hearers  the  benedictions  of  a  rich,  melliloquent 
voice  and  a  sweet,  devout  spirit.  The  children,  quick  to  detect 
sincerity  and  singleness  of  heart,  and  to  recognize  and  recipro- 
cate the  affection  radiating  from  a  lovely  personality,  always 
manifested  their  deep  devotion  and  staunch  loyalty." 

His  ceaseless  and  untiring  labor,  his  constant  travelling, 
his  many  addresses,  and  deep  literary  work  finally  broke  him 
down,  until  he  was  forced  to  give  up  his  work  for  the  Union. 
He  then  took  charge  of  a  mission  in  Orange,  N.  J.,  retaining 
only  the  editorship  of  the  two  monthly  periodicals. 

In  1830  he  undertook  the  management  of  the  New  York 
Protestant  Episcopal  Press,  giving  up  his  parish.  From  it  he 
issued  much  Sunday  School  literature,  and  particularly  a  series 
of  theological  books  that  were  of  supreme  importance. 

Called  to  the  rectorship  of  St.  Luke's,  New  York,  on  the 
elevation  of  Bishop  Ives,  he  built  a  large  Sunday  School  and 
parish  house.  His  Bible  classes  became  quite  the  vogue  in  the 
metropolis.  Finally  ordered  to  stop  his  parish  work  or  lose  his 
life,  he  went  abroad  and  used  that  opportunity  to  journey  among 
the  Old  Catholics  of  Switzerland  and  Germany,  bringing  back 
considerable  gold  for  the  Union's  Treasury. 

Henry  Gregory  succeeded  Whittingham  as  agent  of  the 
Union  in  1829,  and  at  once  began  travelling  through  the  inter- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  479 

ior  of  New  York  state,  selling  Sunday  School  books  and  period- 
icals, and  appointing  agents  for  the  Union.  Later  he  made  a 
(lip  to  the  South,  planting  Sunday  Schools. 

At  the  close  of  the  first  decade  of  the  Union's  existence 
there  were  fifty  thousand  pupils,  five  thousand  teachers,  twenty- 
ciglit  book  stores  of  the  Union  situated  in  nineteen  different 
dioceses,  and  yet  prior  to  this  had  been  the  darkest  era  of  the 
Church.  Still  the  system  was  nothing  more  than  catechizing, 
and  the  chief  power  of  the  Sunday  Seliool  lay  in  the  personal 
relationship  of  the  teacher  to  the  pupils,  and  the  enthusiasm 
which  the  school  aroused. 

About  1835  there  were  strong  movements  towards  centrali- 
zation manifested  in  the  religious  and  secular  world  alike.  The 
formation  of  auxiliary  diocesan  societies  became  necessary,  as 
the  work  had  grown  too  large  for  one  central  organization  to 
oversee.  In  1833  the  Philadelphia  Protestant  Episcopal  Sunday 
and  Adult  Society  changed  its  name  to  "The  Diocesan  Sunday 
School  Society  of  Pennsylvania."  Eleven  of  the  nineteen  dio- 
ceses then  existing  established  similar  societies.  Thus  the  uni- 
fication of  the  movement  was  begun  by  the  Philadelphia  organi- 
zation. Uniformity  was  recommended,  but  no  general  plan  had, 
as  yet,  been  evolved. 

The  General  Convention  of  1835  met  synchronous  with  the 
meeting  of  the  Sunday  School  Union.  It  was  the  last  appear- 
ance of  Bishop  White  in  the  Church  Sunday  School  history. 
It  proclaimed  a  new  missionary  policy  for  the  Church,  the  pro- 
mulgation of  Prayer  Book  Churchmanship.  The  Union  was 
growing  steadily  in  power.  The  parochial  Sunday  School  so- 
cieties, as  such,  were  passing  away,  so  far  as  independent  organi- 
zation was  concerned. 

The  Union  was  officially  incorporated  as  a  General  Insti- 
tution of  the  Church.  The  resolution  was  passed  at  the  meeting 
of  1835  to  be  formally  presented  by  the  General  Convention  in 
1838.  At  the  Convention  of  1838,  the  first  "Joint  Commission 
on  Sunday  Schools"  was  appointed  to  represent  both  houses.  It 
consisted  of  Bishop  George  W.  Doane,  Dr.  Francis  L.  Hawkes, 
Dr.  William  A.  Muhlenberg,  and  the  Rev.  Benjamin  0.  Peers. 

This  Joint  Commission  was  "to  take  into  consideration  the 
important  duty  of  the  Christian  education  of  the  youth  of  both 


480  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

sexes  in  accordance  with  tlie  principles  of  the  Church ;  to  collect 
information  respecting  the  efforts  already  made  and  the  institu- 
tions already  established  for  the  purpose;  to  exert  themselves  as 
far  as  possible  in  extending  a  proper  interest  upon  the  subject 
among  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  Church,  and  to  make  such  a 
report  as  to  aid  them  in  adopting  the  best  measures  for  promot- 
ing this  great  object." 

Throughout  the  life  of  this  Commission,  Peers'  influence 
was  paramount.  He  was  chosen  as  spokesman  and  at  once  be- 
gan a  campaign  of  education.  In  1839  he  was  elected  to  the 
editorship  of  The  Sunday  School  Visitor  and  changed  its 
name  to  The  Journal  of  Religious  Education.  A  little  later 
he  was  chosen  to  be  the  Union's  General  Secretary.  The  princi- 
ples set  forth  in  his  books  and  magazines  were  that  the  parish 
was  the  normal  unit  of  religious  education,  that  the  Church's 
Liturgy  contained  the  true  elements  of  a  system  of  education, 
summed  up  in  the  Catechism  and  offices  of  Holy  Baptism  (thus 
the  term  Baptismal  Education  became  current  at  this  period 
as  the  designation  of  this  type). 

The  General  Convention  of  1841  listened  to  the  report  of 
the  elder  Bishop  Doane,  filling  a  small  octavo  volume.  It  was 
a  plea  for  the  revival  of  the  old  traditional  methods.  Sunday 
Schools  were  condemned  m  to  to  and  the  former  type  of  catechis- 
ing recommended.  The  revival  of  the  "good  old  practice  of  pas- 
toral catechising  in  open  Church,"  was  urged. 

Peers  became  ill  about  this  time  and  died.  Not  a  few  parish 
day  schools  were  opened  as  a  result  of  this  report  and  the  agita- 
tion that  followed.  Burlington  College  was  organized,  and  vari- 
ous other  dioceses  founded  colleges,  into  which  the  graduates  of 
the  day  schools  might  enter. 

The  traditional  revival  was  intimately  connected  with  the 
Oxford  movement  and  the  Catholic  revival  among  the  clergy. 
It  was  therefore  opposed  by  the  laity,  as  traditions  have  always 
been  of  small  interest  to  laymen.  This  movement,  representing 
but  one  wing  of  the  Church,  stirred  up  even  greater  enthusiasm 
under  the  opposition  of  the  forces  of  the  opposite  wing.  Still  it 
was  strong  enough  to  defeat  the  incorporation  of  the  Sunday 
School  Union  as  a  general  Church  Institution. 

Shortly  before  1844,  the  Rev.  Richard  Newton  took  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  481 

field  in  behalf  of  the  Sunda}'  Schools.  The  Union,  having  lost 
the  confidence  of  many  of  the  most  active  Sunday  School  work- 
ers, rapidly  lost  support,  and  soon  became  simply  a  publication 
agency,  with  but  meagre  patronage. 

In  the  animated  discussion  of  the  Convention  of  1844,  the 
Sunday  School  Union  received  attacks  upon  its  literature,  be- 
cause the  productions  fell  under  suspicion  of  Eomanish  error. 
Bishop  Meade  was  allotted  some  two  hundred  publications  for 
examination,  and  in  two  Open  letters  entered  into  violent  stric- 
tures. The  Baptismal  regeneration  and  symbolism  taught  in 
these  books  were  placed  under  ban.    It  was  fanaticism  run  mad. 

The  Sunday  School  Union  replied  in  an  Open  Letter  ut- 
terly repudiating  the  charges  of  its  accusers,  and  showing  that 
the  great  majority  of  the  condemned  publications  had  been  writ- 
ten many  years  before,  and  in  circulation  for  fifteen  years  or 
more.  One  book,  especially  scored  for  its  Eomanish  or  pagan 
materialism,  had  been  written  135  years  before  by  Addison  for 
his  famous  Spectator. 

The  result  of  the  debate  in  the  Open  Letters,  was  of  course 
unsatisfying  to  either  side.  Bishop  Meade  and  his  adherents 
formed  "The  Protestant  Episcopal  Society  for  the  promotion  of 
Evangelical  Knowledge"  in  1847,  making  the  first  serious  breach 
in  the  Church's  organization  for  Sunday  School  work.  The  re- 
sult was  a  decline  of  the  Sunday  School  Union,  but  with  a 
greater  general  interest  in  the  Sunday  School  at  large.  The 
laity  supported  the  Evangelical  Knowledge  Society. 

The  two  theories  of  the  Sunday  School  now  stood  opposed : 
(1)  that  the  Catechism,  Church  Dogma,  Eitual,  and  Attend- 
ance at  Church  were  the  only  essential  concerns,  that  the  Sun- 
day School,  at  best,  was  of  a  temporary  character;  (8)  that  the 
Sunday  School  was  the  regular,  necessary,  and  permanent  means 
for  the  fullest  religious  education. 

Conscious  that  the  lofty  ideals  of  the  Church  had  received 
a  severe  shock  in  the  events  following  the  withdrawal  of  Cardi- 
nal Newman,  Dr.  Muhlenberg  appealed  to  Churchmen  of  all 
schools  to  unite  for  the  education  of  the  young. 

The  General  Convention  of  1853  was  Memorialized  to  con- 
sider the  religious  conditions  prevalent  and  to  suggest  measures. 
A  Commission  of  Bishops  was  appointed  to  consider  and  report 


482  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

upon  the  Memorial.  Thus  it  prepared  and  sent  out  a  special 
questionnaire,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  general  senti- 
ment of  the  Church  at  large.  To  the  elder  Bishop  Doane  were 
assigned  certain  points  for  discussion. 

He  presented  his  Memorial  Papers,  urging  that  in  a  prop- 
erly conducted  parish  there  would  be  no  need  of  Sunday  Schools, 
that  the  Catechism  was  all-sufficient,  if  the  parents  and  the  god- 
parents did  their  duty.  He  urged  the  abnormal  position  of  the 
Sunday  School.  His  views  were  startling,  but  were  those  gen- 
erally held  at  this  time.  They  were  the  same  as  those  set  forth 
in  "The  Report  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  Education"  in  1844. 
There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  Bishop  Doane  looked  at  the 
Sunday  School  problem  from  an  outworn  and,  as  I\Iichael  says, 
"an  anachronistic  standpoint." 

Other  contributors  to  the  Memorial  Papers  touched  upon 
the  Sunday  School  in  its  relation  to  other  Christian  bodies. 
Most  of  the  writers  recommended  a  wider  development  and 
broader  adaptation  of  the  Church's  Liturgy. 

Civil  War  Period. 

During  this  time,  from  1800  on,  the  Church  was  at  a  stand- 
still. Various  denominations  of  Christians,  and  especially  the 
American  Sunday  School  Union,  were  excessively  active.  In 
the  year  1860  not  less  than  2,091  Sunday  Schools  were  organ- 
ized by  the  American  Sunday  School  Union's  missionaries, 
though  New  England,  in  certain  portions,  presented  a  sorry 
plight  spiritually,  liaving  been  driven  to  the  utmost  destitution 
by  the  extremes  of  Puritan  practice.  In  certain  sections  efforts 
to  establish  Sunday  Schools  were  proscribed  with  determined 
hostility. 

A  few  Sunday  Scbool  leaders  like  Dr.  Henry  Clay  applied 
themselves  to  the  revival  of  the  Sunday  School.  In  the  South, 
where  slavery  was  humanely  conducted,  Sunday  Schools  flour- 
ished, as  they  did  also  in  the  Middle  and  Far  West. 

During  these  years  the  Church  did  nothing  in  the  way  of 
this  kind  of  work.  The  Sunday  School  Union  spent  its  money 
in  issuing  doctrinal  publications  to  offset  the  influence  of  the 
Evangelical  Knowledge  Society.  Church  families  in  the 
frontier  were  lost  to  the  denominations,  and  to  this  day  the 


mSTORY  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCUOOL  MOVEMENT  483 

Church  is  weak  iu  those  sections.  What  little  was  (lone  was 
(lone  almost  entirely  by  the  Evangelical  members  of  the  Church. 
In  fact,  the  Low  Church  movement  was  at  first  essentially  a 
Sunday  School  campaign. 

On  tlie  other  hand,  the  Chun-h  ol'  JMiglaiid  had  manifested 
some  wisdom.  In  1843  was  founded  "The  Church  of  England 
Sunday  School  Institute,"  which  accomplished  extensive  results 
in  organizing  the  mother  Church. 

The   Rise  of  the  American   Church   Sunday  School   Institute. 

To  George  C.  Thonuis,  treasurer  of  our  Board  of  Missions, 
then  as  now  the  splendid  Sunday  School  Superintendent  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  Philadelphia,  is  due  the  real 
Eenaissance.  It  commenced  in  1870,  when  Mr.  Thomas  ad- 
dressed his  Teachers'  Association,  suggesting  correspondence 
Avith  the  Evangelical  Sunday  Schools  of  the  Church,  to  "form 
a  society  for  the  mutual  encouragement  of  those  engaged  in  the 
great  work  of  teaching  the  young  and  for  consultation  as  to  the 
best  methods  of  carrying  it  on  in  connection  with  our  ow^n 
Church,  to  bring  before  tlie  people  the  cause  of  Sunday  Schools, 
and  to  enlist  for  them  that  feeling  of  interest  and  attention 
which  they  certainly  ought  to  have." 

On  February  15th,  1870,  at  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trin- 
ity, the  organization  sprang  into  being,  with  Mr.  Charles  E. 
Lex  as  President  and  Mr.  George  C.  Thomas  as  Secretary.  It 
was  called  "The  Sunday  School  Association  of  the  Diocese  of 
Pennsylvania,"  and  renewed  the  work  of  the  earlier  Sunday  and 
Adult  Society.     Events  now  moved  rapidly. 

In  1875,  "The  American  Church  Sunday  School  Institute" 
was  projected  under  the  presidency  of  Bishop  Stevens.  In  1877 
representatives  from  the  Bishop  of  Long  Island  and  the  Sunday 
School  societies  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  met  to  arrange 
a  scheme  of  Uniform  Lessons.  In  1884  the  Institute  was  offi- 
cially organized.  In  1885  the  publication  of  The  American 
Church  Sunday  School  Magazine,  the  Institute's  official 
organ,  was  begun. 

For  thirty  years  the  splendid  schedules  of  lessons  on  the 
uniform  idea  have  been  issued  by  "The  Joint  Diocesan  Lesson 
Committee,"  begun  in  1877,  and  set  forth  regularly  ever  since. 


484  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

The  Interdenominational  Uniform  Lesson  Schedules  were  based 
upon  the  so-called  International  System. 

The  Interdenominational  International  Lessons. 

The  genesis  of  the  National  Convention  dates  back  to  1832, 
when  the  First  Convention  was  called  in  New  York  City.  Five 
National  Conventions  followed :  in  New  York,  October,  1832 ;  in 
Philadelphia,  1833,  and  one  in  1859 ;  Newark,  N.  J.,  1869 ;  and 
Indianapolis,  1872.  This  last  Convention  formally  adopted  the 
plan  of  Uniform  Lessons  for  all  schools.  This  plan  had  been 
the  outcome  of  the  joint  efforts  of  Mr.  B.  F.  Jacobs  and  Bishop 
J.  H.  Vincent. 

The  Sixth  National  Convention  held  at  Philadelphia,  be- 
came "The  First  International  Convention."  They  have  been 
held  every  three  years  since.  World  Sunday  School  Conven- 
tions, four  in  all,  have  met  in  London  in  1889,  and  one  in  1898; 
in  St.  Louis  in  1893;  and  in  Jerusalem  in  1904. 

Sunday  School  Institutes  for  the  printing  of  Sunday  School 
papers  have  gradually  grown  up,  both  among  the  denomina- 
tions and  in  the  Church,  the  most  notable  being  the  Chautau- 
qua Summer  Assembly;  the  Winona  Assembly  at  Indianapolis; 
the  big  summer  gathering  at  Silver  Bay,  near  Lake  George ;  the 
Hartford  (Conn.)  Bible  Normal  College;  the  Bible  Teachers' 
Training  School  in  New  York,  as  well  as  Bible  Normal  Colleges 
in  Northfield,  Mass.  and  Chicago,  111. 

Since  the  formation  of  "The  Religious  Education  Asso- 
ciation," in  1903,  as  the  direct  outgrowth  of  the  value  of  ad- 
dresses on  The  Principles  of  Religious  Education  delivered 
by  ten  leading  educators  in  St.  Bartholomew's  Church,  New 
York,  in  1900,  under  the  auspices  of  the  New  York  Sunday 
School  Commission,  there  has  been  a  leaven  at  work  changing 
and  reorganizing  the  International  Convention  and  Uniform 
Lesson  Movements. 

The  Religious  Education  Association  stands  among  the 
denominations  for  the  same  principles  that  the  Commission 
movement  does  in  the  Church,  and  Churchmen  are  leaders  in 
this  new  movement  to  a  large  extent.  There  are  nearly  five 
thousand  members  enrolled,  covering  the  leading  educators  in 
the  colleges,  seminaries,  and  Churches  of  the  land. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  485 

Already  subject-graded  curricula  arc  being  installed  in 
numerous  Churches,  even  Quakers  and  Puritans  adopting  them. 
Strong  influence  is  being  brought  upon  the  International  for- 
ces to  abrogate  the  uniform  lesson  system  in  favor  of  a  subject- 
graded  curriculum,  or  at  least  to  issue  both  schedules.  To  a 
large  extent  it  is  a  financial  question  that  has  influenced  them, 
from  the  fact  that  so  much  money  is  tied  up  by  the  large  de- 
nominational publishers  in  the  Uniform  Lesson  System,  but 
the  leaven  is  working  and  an  entire  readjustment  of  the  Sun- 
day School  world  along  the  lines  of  modern  day  school  princi- 
ples is,  without  doubt,  in  the  horizon. 

The  Modern  Commission   IVIovement. 

]\rcanwhile,  as  we  have  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
great  advance  had  been  made  in  tlie  day  schools.  The  princi- 
ples of  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and  Herbart  had  been  introduced 
under  the  leadership  of  Horace  Mann.  The  Uniform  Lesson 
idea  in  the  Sunday  School  had  been  losing  its  hold.  In  theory 
it  was  excellent  that  scholars  should  be  studying  the  same  sub- 
ject the  world  over  at  the  same  time;  but  in  practice  it  was 
absolutely  unpedagogical,  and  contrary  both  to  the  psychology 
of  child-nature  and  to  the  principles  of  modern  education.  The 
schools  had  been  losing  their  scholars.  There  had  been  the 
"leak  at  the  top."  The  fire  of  the  modern  movement  was  origi- 
nally kindled  in  the  spring  of  1898,  when  the  Bishop  of  New 
York  called  an  informal  meeting  in  the  Church  of  the  Epiph- 
any, Manhattan,  to  consider  the  possibility  of  improvement  in 
the  schools  of  his  diocese. 

The  outcome  was  that  in  the  autumn  the  Bishop  an- 
nounced to  his  Diocesan  Convention  the  appointment  of  a  Sun- 
day School  Commission  to  examine  into  and  suggest  methods 
of  betterment  in  the  religious  education  of  the  young  in  that 
diocese.  No  limit  was  set  to  its  scope  or  plan  of  work.  The 
Convention  ratified  the  appointment  and  voted  an  appropria- 
tion of  not  over  $1,000  for  the  expenses  of  the  Commission  for 
the  first  year. 

The  Commission,  as  first  appointed,  numbered  fifteen  mem- 
bers. At  its  meeting  for  organization,  held  in  the  See  House, 
in  October,  1898,  the  Rev.  Pascal  Harrower,  to  whose  deter- 


486  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

mined  endeavors  the  Commission  Movement  really  owes  its 
genesis,  was  most  jDroperly  elected  its  Chairman,  and  ever  since 
then  has  been  foremost  in  furthering  the  movement.  The  Rev. 
Wm.  Walter  Smith,  M.A.,  M.D.,  then  Vicar  in  the  Tarish  of 
the  Heavenly  Rest,  New  York,  was  elected  Secretary,  and  has 
held  that  position  ever  since. 

Great  tilings  were  evidently  expected  from  the  Commission 
by  the  clergy  of  the  Diocese.  Within  a  month  after  its  organi- 
zation rectors  wrote  for  suggestions,  "Commission  Lesson 
Books,"  etc.,  when  as  yet  the  Commission  had  scarcely  secured 
its  bearings  or  determined  the  best  ways  in  which  to  help  the 
schools.  Its  preliminary  undertaking  was  a  campaign  of  edu- 
cation, arousing  the  schools  and  the  teachers  to  a  realization  of 
the  need  for  betterment.  The  shibboleth  of  the  new  movement 
was  that  "the  Sunday  School  was  primarily  a  school,"  and  there- 
fore it  must  avail  itself  of  modern  methods  of  education  and 
organization. 

From  this  view-point  it  sought  to  adapt  the  best  methods 
of  the  secular  day  school  wisely  and  practically  to  the  Sunday 
School.  It  sought  to  emphasize  the  forgotten  fact  that  the 
child's  mind  is  a  unit,  and  can  be  educated  only  as  such;  that 
religious  education,  both  in  relation  to  knowledge  and  character, 
is  only  a  part  of  general  education;  and  that,  as  such,  it  cannot 
either  accomplish  results  or  win  respect  if  conducted  by  meth- 
ods obsolete  in  day  school  practice,  unpedagogical  and  wasteful 
of  energy  and  interest,  ignoring  the  child's  real  needs  in  his 
development.  It  did  not  seek  to  displace  the  Joint  Diocesan 
Committee,  an  influential  factor  of  much  more  venerable  lin- 
eage and  prestige,  but  to  supplement  it,  entering  a  somewhat 
different  field,  that  of  education  rather  than  of  inspiration. 

Public  lectures  to  arouse  interest  were  held.  Lectures  to 
teachers  were  given  in  St.  Bartholomew's  Church  by  the  high- 
est educators  in  the  colleges  and  seminaries  of  the  country,  on 
The  Principles  of  Religious  Education.  Lectures  on  the 
life  of  Jesus  Christ  and  on  the  life  and  labors  of  S.  Paul  were 
added.  The  following  year,  teachers'  training  classes  were  es- 
tablished, covering  every  phase  of  Bible  and  Prayer  Book  study, 
child-study,  and  religious  pedagogy.  The  third  year,  extension 
classes  were  arranged,  located  in  various  Churches,  under  the 


lUyTUllY  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  487 

auspices  ol"  tlic  Commission.  Eeading  courses  were  drawn  up, 
with  recommended  books  for  study,  final  examinations,  and 
diplomas.  Some  three-hundred  teachers  in  all  were  definitely 
aided  to  improve  work  and  knowledge  by  these  several  means. 

The  next  step  was  the  provision  of  suitable  lesson  books. 
To  this  the  Commission  was  practically  driven.  The  very  prin- 
ciples of  Education,  the  acceptance  of  the  pedagogical  axioms 
of  a  subject-graded  curriculum,  the  recognized  eiiiciency  of  the 
source  method  as  adopted  universally  in  secular  education,  com- 
pelled the  production  of  manuals  to  meet  the  requirements,  as 
none  were  to  be  found  in  the  Church  to  fulfil  these  principles. 
The  first  books  were  eagerly  welcomed,  and,  thus  encouraged,  a 
series  of  sixty  manuals  have  been  put  forth,  according  to  a  defi- 
nite plan  or  curriculum.  Most  of  these  courses  have  been  on 
varied  aspects  of  Bible  Study,  though  the  Catechism,  Prayer 
Book,  Christian  Year,  Missions,  Church  History,  etc.,  are 
among  the  new  ones.  Two  individual  members  of  the  Com- 
mission have  unofficially  published  additional  courses,  which 
fill  in  a  subject-graded  curriculum,  each  seven  books.  The 
sale  of  these  manuals  has  already  reached  the  total  combined 
imprint  of  over  1,100,000  copies.  One  book  alone  went 
over  100,000.  Of  the  4,600  Sunday  Schools  of  the  American 
Church,  over  half  are  already  graded  and  using  some  of  these 
books.  The  jSTew  York  Commission  began  the  accumulation  of 
a  Sunday  School  Exhibit  in  connection  with  this  work.  It  has 
now  reached  the  huge  dimensions  of  20,500  pieces,  all  tabulated 
and  mounted.  This  exhibit  is  on  permanent  display  at  the 
Diocesan  House,  New  York.  The  History  of  the  Sunday 
School  movement  as  well  as  every  possible  book,  map,  model, 
picture  lesson  book,  and  aid,  is  portrayed  in  detail  for  students. 
Other  dioceses  have  begun  the  assemblage  of  smaller,  local 
exhibits. 

In  less  than  a  year  after  the  appointment  of  the  New  York 
Commission,  the  Long  Island  Diocese  had  one;  then  Chicago; 
and  soon  diocese  after  diocese  joined  the  movement,  until  to-day 
there  are  78  Diocesan  Commissions  and  Institutes  in  the  Ameri- 
can Church,  and  17  in  Canada.  All  but  10  dioceses,  and  they 
Foreign  Fields  or  tiny  Jurisdictions,  out  of  the  entire  American 


488  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

Church,  have  such  a  diocesan  organization.     Most  of  this  de- 
velopment took  place  within  the  first  eight  years. 

Parallel  to  this  two  other  steps  are  to  be  noted.  One  was 
Centralization,  the  other  Larger  Diocesan  Eepresentation. 

(a)  Under  the  insistent  prodding  of  the  New  York  Com- 
mission, "The  Sunday  School  Federation  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  in  the  United  States  of  America,"  was  effected  in 
1904  at  Boston,  uniting  near  30  of  the  largest  Diocesan  Organi- 
zations for  unified  endeavor  and  united  propaganda.  This  or- 
ganization has  a  wide  field,  and,  upon  the  careful  study  of  its 
Standing  Committees,  many  valuable  suggestions  have  already 
been  published. 

Synchronous  with  the  formal  organization  of  the  Federa- 
tion, though  initiative  action  had  been  taken  a  year  or  more 
previous,  looking  to  the  Federation,  the  General  Convention  at 
Boston  appointed  an  Official  "Joint  Commission  on  Sunday 
School  Instruction,"  composed  of  twenty-one  members,  seven 
from  each  of  the  three  legislative  orders.  This  action  was  due 
to  urgent  representations,  both  on  the  part  of  the  Joint  Diocesan 
Committee,  of  the  American  Sunday  School  Institute,  and  of 
the  Sunday  School  Federation,  Mr.  George  C.  Thomas  pre- 
senting the  resolution. 

(b)  Diocesan  Commissions  were  found  to  be  too  authorita- 
tive, too  official,  too  small  in  membership,  and  not  sufficiently 
local  and  representative  to  act  as  an  inspirational  and  training 
medium.  Under  them,  therefore,  have  been  organized  local  City 
or  Sectional  Institutes,  Associations,  Branches,  designed  to  par- 
cel off  the  dioceses  and  secure  Institute  Meetings  and  Confer- 
ences for  the  practical  training  of  teachers,  arousing  of  interest, 
etc.  There  are  now  47  such  organizations,  making  a  grand  total 
of  135  Sunday  School  Organizations. 

The  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Forward  Movement. 

The  old  ideal  of  the  Sunday  School  had  overstressed  the 
heart  side.  It  was  one-sided.  It  laid  emphasis  on  only  one  of 
the  three-fold  elements  in  education,  consequently,  it  failed  to 
prove  fully  effective. 

The  first  notes  of  the  New  Education  seemed  to  sound  only 
the  tocsin  of  the  head;  but  it  was  merely  to  guide  towards  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  489 

trinity  of  head,  heart,  and  will.  The  old  education  said,  "It  does 
not  matter  whether  the  child  learns  much  in  Sunday  School, 
so  long  as  he  loves  his  teacher  and  she  loves  him,  and  they  keep 
on  loving  each  other  enough."  The  new  Education  said,  "The 
Sunday  School  is  a  School/'  and,  as  such,  must  come  under  the 
jirinciples  of  the  School. 

In  the  Day  School  there  had  been  a  renaissance.  The  for- 
mer secular  ideals  of  a  half-century  ago  had  recognized  but  two 
factors — the  teacher  and  the  material.  The  pregnant  discovery 
in  the  Educational  domain  had  been  the  discovery  of  the  child. 
Starting  with  the  child,  the  New  York  Commission  urged  that 
the  child  is  the  same  child,  w'itli  the  same  mind,  the  same  grey 
matter  in  his  cranium,  the  same  powers  for  apprehension  of 
truth,  on  Sundays  as  on  week  days.  It  was  absurd  to  expect 
God  to  work  a  miracle  whereby  His  divine  truth  in  the  Sunday 
School  could  be  dilferently  apprehended  by  diverse  laws,  and 
methods,  and  principles  from  God's  divine  truth  in  the  Day 
School.  Therefore,  in  the  light  of  the  Day  School,  and  in  com- 
parison and  harmony  with  it,  the  following  principles  must 
underlie  the  Forward  Movement: 

(1)  A  Subject-Graded  Curriculum.  All  public  Schools  are 
graded.  Even  "the  little  red  school  house"  is  graded.  There 
has  always  been  a  sequence  of  subjects  of  study,  a  curriculum 
that  is,  more  or  less  extensive,  ever  since  the  days  when  the 
Educational  Keformcrs  pointed  attention  to  the  fact  of  child- 
development.  The  very  nature  of  "the  unfolding  process"  in 
mental  growth  and  the  successive  out-croppings  of  children's 
instincts  and  interests  showed  that  the  door  was  shut,  so  to 
speak,  to  the  entree  of  certain  ideas  before  a  certain  definite 
stage  had  been  reached. 

Thus,  with  a  greater  economy  of  energy,  a  vast  saving  of 
time,  and  the  assemblage  of  a  much  richer  mass  of  material,  the 
Subject-Graded  Curriculum  took  the  place  of  the  Uniform  Les- 
son Idea.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  "a  graded  school."  Of 
course,  the  children  are  arranged  by  ages  (or  rather  by  the 
actual  Public  School  Grades,  which  is  nmch  better)  ;  but  the 
real  Sunday  School  Grading  is  Subject-Grading. 

New  York  put  forth  the  first  Sunday  School  Curriculum. 
Hundreds  of  individual  Parishes  and  dozens  of  Dioceses  fol- 


490  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

lowed.  The  period  of  1901-1907  was  the  era  of  Curricula.  Xew 
York,  Central  New  York^  Virginia,  Cliicago,  Oliio,  Southern 
Ohio,  California,  Massachusetts,  Iowa,  and  Rhode  Island  put 
forth  the  best — all  built  upon  the  same  general  norm,  the  New 
York  one. 

Then  the  Federation  took  the  matter  into  purview.  Its 
curriculum  is  almost  word  for  word  on  the  same  plan.  The 
Joint  Commission  at  the  General  Convention  at  Richmond  in 
1907  promulgated  an  almost  identical  curriculum,  since  both 
were  built  on  the  same  model,  arose  from  the  same  principles, 
and  were  prepared  by  the  same  group  of  men. 

Finally,  a  year  previous,  the  hand  of  the  Joint  Diocesan 
Lesson  Committee  was  guided  to  draw  up  a  statement  of  Gen- 
eral Principles,  based  on  child-nature,  which  principles  agree  in 
substance  with  the  above  subject-graded  Curricula.  Thus  every 
official  Sunday  School  Organization  of  the  American  Church 
stands  to-day  behind  the  Subject-Graded  Curriculum. 

(2)  The  Heuristic  or  Source  Method.  This  is  a  basal  prin- 
ciple in  the  Day  School — Personal  research,  getting  back  as  near 
as  can  be  to  the  original,  the  source.  Tangible  use  of  the  Bible, 
the  Prayer  Book,  the  source  manual,  was  almost  unknown  in  the 
Sunday  School.  Children  would  remark:  "We  do  not  study 
the  Bible  in  our  School,  we  study  the  Quarterly."  Erastus 
Blakeslee  began  the  movement  among  Schools  outside  the  Church 
Schools  by  the  publication  of  the  Bible  Study  Union  Lessons  on 
the  Source  Method,  since  it  proceeded  from  the  particular  to 
the  general  in  the  development  of  truth. 

The  New  York  Commission,  recognizing  its  pedagogical 
soundness  and  its  valuable  adaptation  to  the  requirements  of  a 
Subject-Curriculum,  began  in  1893  to  produce  actual  text  books 
on  a  curriculum  plan,  based  on  this  principle.  It  gave  the  name 
"Source"  to  the  Method,  rather  than  the  appellation  "Induc- 
tive," as  used  by  the  Bible  Study  Co.  It  also  coined  the  more 
academic  term  "Heuristic,"  from  tvpCaKOi,  "to  find." 

(3)  Written  Answer  Work.  The  Heuristic  Method  means 
research.  The  guide  to  that  research  is  found  in  sets  of  ques- 
tions compiled  in  graded  sequence  in  pupils'  class  books.  The 
Method  under  which  this  research  is  conducted  is  written  work. 
Its  plan  for  reproduction  in  the  class  is  oral  discussion  and  man- 


HISTORY  OK  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  491 

ual  work.  Spaces  are  left  between  the  printed  questions  in  the 
Graded  Commission  Text  Books  for  the  written  answers,  always 
in  the  form  of  a  statement. 

(4)  Manual  Methods.  Manual  methods  are  a  recognized 
means  of  self-expression.  Etymologically,  of  course,  it  includes 
all  hand  work,  even  writing.  Practically  we  use  it  to  denomi- 
nate, in  the  Sunday  School,  the  following  lines  of  objective 
work,  introduced  from  the  Day  School:  (a)  Book  Work,  which 
includes  Picture  Mounting  for  each  Lesson,  with  mounted  clip- 
I)ing  from  old  Bibles,  and  written  descriptive  or  thesis  work  to 
accompany  it — an  illuminated  Biography  or  History.  This 
work  runs  right  through  the  grades,  from  Kindergarten  through 
Adult  Bible  Classes.  (&)  Relief  Map  Work,  (c)  Map  Work  in 
the  Flat,  {d)  Models,  (e)  Public  School  Methods.  Separate 
rooms,  desks,  note-book  and  picture  work,  wall  maps,  and  wall 
pictures,  manual  work,  blackboards,  sand  tables,  kindergarten 
paraphernalia  are  becoming  quite  general.  Old  buildings  are 
being  altered  to  meet  these  requirements,  new  ones  are  being 
constructed  along  improved  lines. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  Trace  the  Early  Origin  of  the  Sunday  School  Movement,  through 

the  time  of  the  Robert  Raikes'  Schools. 

2.  Trace  its  planting  at  first  in  America. 

3.  What  was  the  condition  of  Religious  Education  at  the  close  of  the 

Revolution  ? 

4.  What  were  the  main  events  tliat  followed,  in  order? 

5.  \Vhat  names  of  moment  were  there  among  Churcli  leaders? 

0.    What  significant  steps  occurred  in  the  Conventions  of  1835,   1841, 
1844,  and  especially  1853? 

7.  How  did  the  Civil  War  affect  the  Sunday  Schools? 

8.  Trace  the  Renaissance  under  the  American  Sunday  School  Institute 

and  !Mr.  George  C.  Thomas. 

9.  What  occurred  among  other  religious  bodies? 

10.  Give  the  Steps  of  Progress  of  the  Modern  Commission  Movement. 

11.  What  do  you  know  of  "The  Religious  Education  Association,"  "The 

Sunday    School    Federation,"    and    "The    Joint    Commission    on 
Sunday  Schools"? 

12.  State  "the  fundamental  Principles  of  the  Forward  Movement." 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE    HISTORY  OF   LESSON   SYSTEMS. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

•Sunday  Schools  of  the  American  Church.    Michael.    All. 
•Pedagogical  Bible  School.     Haslett.     pp.  49-62. 
Modern  Sunday  School.     Cope.     See  Index. 
The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching.     Page.     p.  43. 

History  of  Lesson  Systems. 

(a)  The  St.  Sulpice  System. 
Possibly  the  earliest  Lesson  System  was  the  S.  Sulpice,  the 
French  or  Dupanloup  Method,  of  which  Penelon  was  practically 
the  originator.  It  has  been  re-issued  to-day  in  two  English 
Series  of  Cloth  Manuals  and  another  differing  American  System 
by  a  prominent  rector.  It  is  par  cvcellence  the  Catechetical 
System,  demanding  thorough  training  and  adaptability  on  the 
part  of  the  Minister  using  it.  Pedagogically,  it  is  wedded  to 
rote  work,  memoriter  reproduction,  and  extreme  lack  of  indi- 
viduality. The  Conductor  is  everything,  the  teachers  are  lost 
sight  of. 

(&)   Question-and- Answer  Boolcs. 

The  development  of  religious  instruction  has  not  kept  pace 
with  the  advance  of  secular  education.  Since  the  original  found- 
ing of  the  modern  Sunday  School,  under  Robert  Raikes  of 
England,  there  have  been  but  few  progressive  steps.  The  original 
plan  of  a  staff  of  paid  teachers,  which  Raikes  began,  degenerated 
into  a  fomial  question-and-answer  book,  in  place  of  the  per- 
sonal study  of  the  Bible.  Orthodoxy  and  dogma,  rather  than 
the  Bible  and  pure  righteousness,  became  the  end  of  the  Sunday 
School.  Interest  gave  way  to  habit.  Dead  question  books, 
leaflets,  and  a  host  of  systems,  some  positively  injurious  to  the 


THE  HISTORY  OF  LESSON  SYSTEMS  493 

growing  mind  of  the  child,  soon  flooded  the  schools.    Then  came 
a  rise  of  the  wave. 

(c)  International  Lessons. 

The  International  Lessons  appeared,  which,  imperfect  as 
they  seem  to-day,  were  a  long  step  above  the  formal,  dead  books 
that  preceded  them. 

(d)  Uniform  Lesson  Series. 

The  Schedules  as  produced  by  the  Joint  Diocesan  Lesson 
Committee  merely  indicate  the  lesson  titles,  the  subject,  and 
the  portion  of  the  Scripture  to  be  studied.  It  is  left  to  the  pub- 
lishers to  issue  the  Scholars'  and  Teachers'  Helps.  Thus  have 
arisen  several  series  of  lessons :  the  Whittaker  Series,  published 
by  Thomas  Whittaker  of  New  York;  the  Jacobs  Series,  pub- 
lished by  George  W.  Jacobs  &  Co.  of  Philadelphia;  the  Franklin 
Press  Series,  published  by  the  Franklin  Press  of  Petersburg, 
Va. ;  and  the  Church  Lessons,  for  the  younger  grades  only,  pub- 
lished by  the  Church  Publishing  Co.  of  New  York. 

(e)  The  Doane  or  Gwynne  Series. 

The  Doane  or  Gwynne  Series  of  Lessons  were  edited  by  the 
present  Bishop  Doane  and  written  by  the  Rev.  Walker  G\^ynne. 
There  are  two  series,  one  on  the  Old  Testament,  and  one  on  the 
New.  They  represent  strong  doctrinal  teaching,  and  the  ques- 
tion-and-answer  method. 

(/")   The  Blakeslee  or  Bible  Study  Union  Lessons. 

These  Lessons  have  a  great  advantage  over  any  of  their 
predecessors,  for  the  following  reasons :  ( 1 )  They  are  the  Heu- 
ristic or  Source  Method;  (2)  They  require  written  answer  work; 
(3)  They  cover  the  Bible  in  logical  sequence  and  historical  order, 
and  finish  up  one  portion  before  they  begin  anotlier,  so  that  they 
do  not  have  double  semesters;  (4)  They  demand  and  secure 
individual  and  detail  study  of  the  Bible;  (5)  They  provide  for 
the  self-activity  of  the  pupil  and  for  manual  work. 

(g)   The  Commission  Series. 

Still,  these  systems  are  not  the  highest  we  can  reach.  They 
are  not  properly  graded  in  subject-matter,  which  is  just  as  essen- 
tial as  is  simplicity  of  question-form.    Nor  are  they  wide  enough 


494  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

in  the  scope  of  material  ofTered.  Moreover,  they  are  hardly 
fitted  for  use  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  through  the  necessary 
omission  of  Doctrine,  Chureli  History,  and  Praj^er  Book  Study, 
due  to  their  interdenomijiatioual  character.  However,  they  are 
based  on  the  right  pedagogical  principle,  the  Heuristic  or  Source 
Method,  by  which  Scholars  and  Teachers  go  back,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, to  the  sources,  and  derive  their  knowledge  first-hand. 

The  Commission  Lessons  are  Churchly,  adapted  to  schools 
requiring  from  26  to  40  Lessons  per  year,  with  Eeviews  and 
Examinations,  definite  work  for  home  study,  with  written  answer 
work,  and  special  class  material.  Useful  Memoritcr  Passages, 
consisting  of  Hymns,  Psalms,  Collects,  and  Scripture  Selec- 
tions are  provided.  Pictures  and  other  Aids  are  suggested. 
Good  Maps  and  Charts  are  supplied. 

Uniformity  of  System. 

There  are  over  200  various  Text  Books  and  Systems  now 
being  used  in  the  Episcopal  Church  alone.  Tliere  are  forty  in 
one  Diocese.  There  is  no  likelihood  that  a  child  going  from  one 
School  to  another  will  have  a  similar  system  or  grading.  Every 
change  of  Assistant  Minister  or  Superintendent  means  a  new  ex- 
perimentation in  lessons.  Confusion  and  despair  reign  supreme 
in  the  Sunday  School  world.  "This  ought  not  so  to  be."  No 
local  movements  for  Sunday  School  Betterment  can  accomplish 
much  without  co-operation,  federation,  and  extra-parochial  in- 
terest. It  lies  with  the  Clergy  as  a  body  and  as  individuals. 
Most  of  all  it  lies  with  the  Seminaries  and  their  Trustees.  Not 
more  than  a  mere  fraction  of  our  Theological  Schools  provide 
the  slightest  training  in  Religious  Pedagogy,  Child  Study,  and 
Sunday  School  Management  for  the  very  men  whose  life-work 
it  will  be  to  supervise,  at  least,  Just  this  work.  It  is  like  an 
Art  School  that  omitted  drawing.  Wlien  Clergy  know  how 
to  improve  Sunday  Schools,  betterment  will  not  be  long  in 
coming.  It  is  the  most  important  task  of  the  Christian  Church 
— this  education  of  the  child — the  foundation  on  which  alone  all 
our  subsequent  Adult  Superstructure  can  be  erected.  "Give  me 
the  child  and  you  can  have  the  man,"  said  a  noted  Cardinal. 
God  has  given  us  the  children.    Let  us  use  our  opportunity  and 


Tin;  HISTORY  of  lesson  systems  495 

supply  them  with  ii  fully  rounded  religious  education,  their 
rightful  due. 

Judging  from  general  practice,  the  School  is  to  seek  such 
text  books  or  leaflets  as  will  please  the  teachers  and  be  popular 
with  the  j)npils.  But  to  do  this  is  to  confess  that  we  have  not 
organized  a  School,  but  an  entertainment  bureau.  It  is  this 
false  conception  of  the  purpose  of  the  organization  which  makes 
many  Sunday  Schools  pitiable  failures. 

There  seems  to  be  a  notion  that  we  cannot  teach  the  faith 
of  our  grandsires  unless  we  do  it  by  the  methods  of  our  grand- 
sires.  The  children  in  our  Sunday  School  come  to  us  from  the 
public  school.  They  are  quick  to  feel  the  difference  of  method, 
and  to  show  a  loss  of  interest.  As  soon  as  they  are  old  enough 
to  think,  they  begin  to  make  comparisons,  the  Sunday  School 
is  "slow  and  stupid,"  or,  worse  yet,  "religion  is  slow  and  stupid" ; 
and,  unless  they  have  a  strong  personal  affection  for  their 
teacher,  they  want  to  drop  out  of  the  inferior  school.  The  ab- 
sence of  modern  pedagogical  principles,  the  dull,  monotonous 
drifting,  without  aim  or  method  or  living  interest,  which  char- 
acterizes many  of  our  Schools  is  a  large  factor  in  cultivating 
that  contempt  for  Church  and  religion  which  we  too  frequently 
find  in  the  minds  of  wide-awake  pupils. 

"The  True  Curriculum  is  decided  by  the  Natural  develop- 
ment of  the  Child.  The  child  is  not  a  small  and  weak  adult, 
tliercfore  the  old  idea  that  he  is  to  be  taught  the  same  lesson 
as  the  adult  has  no  foundation  except  ignorance  of  the  child's 
nature  and  capacity.  A  mature  mind  comprehends  philosophi- 
cal truth  and  theological  distinctions,  but  no  smallness  of  dose, 
nor  largeness  of  baby-talk  dilution  can  make  such  subject  clear 
to  immature  minds.  The  frequent  attempt  to  force  upon  the 
younger  pupils  of  the  Sunday  School  the  theological  concep- 
tions of  adults  concerning  the  most  mysterious  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity has  done  much  to  make  religion  unattractive,  or  posi- 
tively distasteful,  to  healthy  children." 

Possibilities  and  Limitations  of  the  Heuristic  IVIethod. 

It  de])ends  largely  on  the  teacher,  who  must  be  trained,  or 
at  least  must  work  hard  and  study  to  educate  himself  to  use 
such  a  System.    The  best  tools  of  the  finest  steel  are  to  be  put 


496  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

into  the  hands  of  the  best  qualified  workers.  Tliey  arc  soon 
broken  or  at  once  useless  in  the  hand  of  the  untrained.  It  is 
not  the  fault  of  the  tool,  but  of  the  workman.  So  the  best  sys- 
tem will  fail  with  poor  teachers.  It  will  not  be  the  fault  of  the 
system  itself,  however.  With  earnest,  faithful  work,  splendid 
results  may  be  secured.  The  future  of  the  Sunday  School  de- 
pends on  those  in  its  own  ranks. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  can  you  say  of  the  nature  and  value  of  the  S.  Sulpice  System 

of  Lessons? 

2.  What  other  Systems  have  been  produced? 

3.  What  advance  did  each  make  on  its  predecessors? 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  "Uniform  Les- 

son Idea"? 

5.  What  gains  has  the  "Heuristic  Method"? 


LIST  OF  REFERENCE  BOOKS  SUGGESTED 

Those  Maukkd  with  IX^ggek  (t)  ahe  Essential  to  a  Full  Knowledge  of 
THIS  Course.     Those  Marked  with  Star  (*)  are  Especially 

IlEUrKUL    AND    ILLUMINATING. 

Note. — All  of  these  books  mav  be  secured  through  tlie  New  York  Sunday 
School  Commission.  Inc.,  410  Lafayette  Street.  New  York;  The  Young 
Churchman  Co..  Milwaukee,  Wis.  ;  or  any  other  book  retailer. 

I.    THE   AIM  OF   RELIGIOUS   INSTRUCTION. 

•Up  Through  Childhood.     Geo.  .-1.  HuhheU.     Putnam,  .$1.50. 
♦Education  in  Relation  to  Religion  and  Morals.     Geo.  A.  Coc.     Revell, 
^1.25. 

The  Meaning  of  Education.     Dr.  Nicholas  M.  Butler.     Macmillan,  $1.00. 
t*THE  Principles  op  Religious  Education.     S.  S.  Commission.     $1.25. 

Principles  and  Ideals  for  the  Sunday  School.     Burton  and  Mathews. 
Un.  of  Chic.  Press,  $1.00. 

Religious  Education  and  How  to  Improve  It.     C.  L.  Drawbridge.     Long- 
mans, $1.25. 

Sunday  School  Outlook.     S.  S.  Commission.     Pa.,  25  cts.  :  <-loth.  60  cts. 

Foundation  Principles  of  Education.    Kev.  H.  H.  Moore.    Gorham,  Imp., 
40  cents. 

A  New  Life  in  Education.     Durell.    Am.  S.  S.  Union,  $1.00. 

The  Place  and  Function  of  the  Sunday  School.     Binhop  Parct.     Whit- 
taker,  50  cents. 

The  Ministry  of  the  Sunday  School.     T.  H.  Pattison.     Am.  Bapt.  Soc, 
$1.00. 

The  Foundations  of  Education.     Dr.  Levi  Seeley.     Hinds  &  Noble.     $1.00. 

Edixational  Aims  and  Values.     Paul  W.  Hannus.     Macmillan.     $1.00. 

The  School  and  Society.     Dr.  John  Dewe;/.     Un.  of  Chic,  $1.00. 

Education  and  Life.     Jame-><  H.  Baker,  LL.D.     Longmans.     $1.25. 

The  Study  of  Character.     Bain. 

Character.     Mardcn.     Crowell.     50  cents. 

Character.     Smiles.     Burt.  $1.00. 

Culture  and  Religion.     Shairp.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  $1.25. 

Educational  Aims  and  Methods.     J.  J.  Fitch.     Macmillan,  $1.50. 

The  Front  Line  of  the  Sunday  School  Movement.    Rev.  F.  N.  Peloubet, 
D.D.     Wilde,  $1.00. 

The  Catechist's  Handhook.    Xewland-Swith.    Young  Churchman  Co.,  $1.20. 

2.    THE  TEACHER'S  WORK. 

The  Teacher  That  Teaches,     .twos  Wells.     Pilgrim  Press,  50  cents. 
♦Some  Silent  Teachers.    Elistihcth  Harrison.    Chic.  Kindergarten  Co.,  $1.00. 
Teaching  and  Teachers.     lirr.  Henry  C.  Trumbull.     Walths.     $1.00. 
t^I'NCONScious  Tuitio.n.     Bishop   Huntington.      Barnes.      15  cents. 
Successful  Teaching.     Greenwood.     Funk  &  Wagnalls,  $1.00. 
Character    Building.      C.   *>.   Coler.      Hinds   &   Noble.      $1.00. 
The  Making  of  Character.     MacCunn.     Macmillan,  $1.25. 


498  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

3.    PROCESS  OF   MIND  GROWTO. 

t*TALKS  TO  Teacheus.     Prof.  William  James.     Holt,  ?1.50. 

Syllabus  to  Above.     Dr.  Walter  L.  Hervey.     S.  S.  Commission,  5  cents. 
♦Tub  New  I'syciiology.     Prof.  Oordii.     Hinds  &  Noble.     $1.25. 
t*I?RAiN  AND  Personality.     W.  II.  Thompson.     Dodd,  Mead.     $1.20. 
t*P.uiEFEi{  CoiiusB.     Prof.  William  James.     Holt,  J?!. 80. 

Psychology.     Prof.  William  James.     Holt,  2  vols.,  $2.50  each. 
Klembnts  of  Psychology.     Prof.  IJ.  L.  Thorndike.     Seilcr.     .$1.50. 
Klk.ments  op  Child-Psychology.     Prof.  J.  M.  Baldwin.     Appleton,  .$1.50. 
The  Pedagogical  Bible  School.    ,^am'l  B.  Ilazlett.    Revell,  .$1.25. 
Intelligence  in  Plants  and  Animals.     Prof.  J.  M.  Baldwin. 
Mental  Development  of  the  Child  and  the  Race.     Prof.  J.  M.  Baldicin. 

Appleton,  $2.60. 
Thinking,  Feeling,  Doing.    Prof.  E.  W.  Scripture.     Putnam,  $1.50. 
Psychology  and  I'sychic  Cdlturb.     Halleck.    Am.  Book  Co.,  $1.25. 
*The  Study  of  Children.     Dr.  Francis  War7i€r.     Macmillan,  $1.00. 
Social  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World.     Prof.  Rufus  M.  Jones.     Winston 

Co.,  $1.25. 
Religion  and  Medicine.     Elivood  Worcester,  D.D.     Moffat,  $1.50. 
The   Psychic    Treatment   of    Nervous   Disorders.      Dr.   Paul   Du   Bois. 
Funk  &  WagnallR,  $;?.00. 
t*A  Study  in  Child  Nature.     Elizaheth  Harrison.     Chic.  Kindergarten  Co., 

$1.00. 
t* Childhood.     Mrs.  Birncy.     $1.50. 
♦The  Mind  of  a  Child.     Ennis  Richmond.     Longmans,   $1.00. 
The  Story  of  the  Mind.     Prof.  J.  M.  Baldwin.     Appleton,  $1.00. 
The  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood.     Perez.     Bardeen,  $1.50. 
t*TnB   Point  of  Contact  in   Teaching.     Patterson  Du  Bois.     Dodd,   Mead 

&  Co.,  75  cents. 
t*SYLLABUS  TO  ABOVE.     Dr.  W.  L.  Hcrvcy.     S.  S.  Commission.     10  cents. 
Beckoning  of  Little  Hands.     Patterson  Du  Bois.     Wattles,  $1.00. 
*Nbw  Methods  for  the  Junior  Class.     Hetty  Lee.     Nat'l  Soc,  London, 

75  cents. 
*The  Training  of  the  Human  Plant.     Luther  Burbank.     Century  Co.     60 

cents. 
♦The  Unfolding  Life.     A.  B.  Lamareaux.     Religious  Pub.  Co.     75  cents. 
The  Book  of  the  Child.    Fred  D.  How.     Dutton.     $1.25. 
liETTERS  TO  A  MOTHER.     Susan  Blow.     Appleton,  $1.50. 
Symbolic  Education.     Susan  Blow.     Appleton,   $1.50. 
t*THE  Training  of  the  Twig.     C.  L.  Drawhridfje.     Longmans.  $1.25. 

The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.     /?.  H.  Rowc.    Macmillan,  $1.00. 
t*THB  Boy  Problem.     Rev.  Wm.  B.  Forhush.     Pilgrim  Press,  $1.00. 
♦The  Child  and  Religion.     Stephens.     Putnam,  $1.50. 

The  Child  as  God's  Child.     Chas.  W.  Richell.     Eaton  &  Mains,  75  cents. 
*Thb  Psychology  of  Religious  Belief.     Dr.  Jas.  W.  Pratt.     Macmillan, 
$1.50. 
Entering  on  Life.     7?ci'.  C.  Oeikie,  D.D.     Hurst  &  Co..  $1.00. 
Education  and  the  Higher  Life.     SpnUUng.     McClurg.  $1.00. 
Destiny  of  Man.     Fiske.     Houghton,  Mifllin  &  Co..  $1.00. 
♦Adolescence.     Stanley  Hall.     2  vols.     Scribner's,  $7.50. 

On  the  Threshold.     Munger.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  $1.00. 
♦The  Psychology  of  Religion.     Prof.  Starbuek.     Scribner's,  $1.50. 
t^THK  Spiritual  Life.     Geo.  A.  Coe,  Ph.D.     Revell.  $1.00. 

A  Modern   Study  op  Conscience.     Rev.   Oliver  Huckel.     Winston  Press, 

75  cents. 
The  Religion  of  a  Mature  Mind.     Prof.  Geo.  A.  Coe.     Revell,  $1..35. 
A  Man's  Value  to  Society.     Hillis.     Revell.  $1.25. 
Morals  and  Manners.     Wm.  L.  Shearer.     Richardson  Smith,  75  cents. 
Conduct  as  a  Fine  Art.     Oilman.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  $1.50. 
Habit  in  Education.     Radestock.     Heath,  75  cents. 
Our  Temperaments.     Steivart. 
Pragmatism.     Prof.  William  James.     Holt,  $1.25. 

The  Psychology  of  Inspiration.     Geo.  L.  Raymond.     Putnam,  $1.50. 
♦Through  Boyhood  to  Manhood.     Ennis  Richmond.     Longmans,  $1.00. 

Religion  in  Boyhood.     E.  B.  Layard.     Dutton,  75  cents. 
♦The  Training  op  the  Young  in  Laws  of  Sex.     E.  Lyttleton.     Longmans, 
75   cents. 
The  Religious  Condition  op  Young  Men.     International  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  $1.00. 
Report  of  the  Committee  op  Fifteen.     Putnam,  $1.00. 
The  Vir  Series.     Vir  Pub.  Co.,  $1.00  each. 
Talks  with  Teachers.     Mayo. 


tin;   lllSTUItV  OF  LESSON  SYSTEMS  499 

4.    THE    LESSON. 

t*TnE  TEAcniNQ  OF  BiDLE  CLASSES.    Edwiti  E.  See.    International  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
I'a.,  40  cents. 

AniLT  Classes.     Prof.  Wood.     IMlgrlm  Press,  I'a.,  25  cents. 

IIow  TO  Keacii  Me.x.     31.  A.  Hudson.     S.  S.  Times  Co.     50  cents. 
t*Ilow  TO  I'LAN  THE  LESSON.     Dr.  M.  C.  UrowH.     Uevell,  50  cents. 

IIow  TO  Co.NDix'T  THE  RECITATION.     Chd.f.  MvMurruy.     Barnes,  15  cents. 

Tealiieks"  Bei'eue.nce  Bible.     Nat.  I'ub.  Co.,  $3.00. 

5.     RELIGIOUS  I'EDAGOGY. 

•The  Teachek  and  the  Child.     T.  Mark.     Revell,  75  cents. 
Hints  on  Child-Tkaining.     Rei\  Henry  C.  Trumbull.     Scribners,  $1.25. 
The  Tiieouv  and  1'uacticb  of  Teaching.     Thring.     Macmillan,  .$1.00.. 
The  Theouy  and  I'ltACTiCE  of  Teaching.    David  P.  Page.     Hinds  &  Noble, 
.$1.00. 
•Sunday  School  Science.    Rev.  R.  S.  Holmes.     Eaton  &  Mains,  25  cents. 
•Teachers  and  Teaching.     Rev.  H.  C.  Trumbull.     Scribners,  $1.25. 
•Yale  Lectures  on  Teaching.     Rev.  H.  C.  Trumbull.     Scribners,  $2.00. 
•Teacher  Training.     Rev.  Cha^.   W.  Roads,  D.D.     Eaton  &  Mains,  Pa.,  25c. 
The  Teacher,  the  Child,  and  the  Book.    Rev.  F.  Sehauffler,  D.D.     Wilde, 
$1.25. 
t^Mv  I'edagogic  Creed.    Dr.  John  Deivey.     Barnes,  15  cents. 
Talks  on  I'edagogics.     Col.  F.  W.  Parker.     Barnes,  $1.20. 
t^A  Primer  on  Teaching.     Prof.  Adams.     T.  &  T.  Clark,  Scribners,  25c. 
The    Seven    Laws    of   Teaching.      Rev.   J.   M.    Gregory,   LL.D.      I'ilgrim 

Press,  75  cents. 
The  Art  of  Teaching.     Sir  J.  O.  Fitch.     Barnes,  $1.25. 
Essentials  of  Method.     DeOarmo.     Hoatli,  75  cents. 
Contents  of  Childkex's  Minds.     G.  Stanley  Hall.     Barnes,  15  cents. 
•Talks  with  the  Training  Class.     Miss  Slattery.     Pilgrim  Press,  Cloth, 
(iO  cents  ;  paper,  25  cents. 
The  Science  of  Study.     James  O.  Moore.     Hinds  &  Noble,  $1.00. 
Si'CCESSWARD.     liok.     Revell,  50  cents. 
How  TO  Win.     Willard.     Funk  lS:;  Wagnalls.  $1.00. 
t*HAND  Work  in  the  Sunday  School.     Litttefield.     S.  S.  Commission,  $1.00. 
t*l*iCTURES  AND  I'icTURE   WoRK.     Dr.   Walttr  L.  Hervey.     Revell,   35  cents. 
Tub  Relation  of  Interest  to  Will,  Herbart  Year  Book.     Prof.  Dewey. 
Herbart  Society,  35  cents. 
t*How  to  Interest.     Rev.  Wm.  C.  Mutch.     S.  S.  Commission,  15  cents. 
t^TiiE  Art  of  Securing  Attention.     J.  J.  Fitch.     Barnes,  15  cents. 
t^IIow  TO  Hold  Attention.     Prof.  Hughes.     Barnes,   15  cents, 
t'llow  to  Keep  Order.     Prof.  Hughes.     Barnes,  15  cents. 
t'TiiE  Art  of  Questio.mng.     J.  J.  Fitch.     Barnes,  15  cents. 
IIow  to  Train  the  Memory.     Quick.     Barnes,  15  cents. 
•How  to  Strengthen  the  Memory.     Holbrook. 
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Five-Minute  Ob.ject  Sermons.     Sylvanus  Stall.     Vir  I'ub.  Co.     $1.00. 
Legends  of  the  Patriarchs  and  Proi-hets.     Rev.  S.  Baring-Gould. 
•A  Book  of  Golden  Deeds.     Yonge.     Duttou.     35  cents. 

G.    GRADING   THE   SUNDAY   SCHOOL. 

t*THE  Churchman's   Manual  on  S.   S.   Method.     Rev.   A.  A.   Butler,  D.D. 

Y.  C.  Co.,  $1.00. 
Curriculum.     Rev.  R.  M.  Hodge,  D.D.     15  cents. 

The  Model  Sunday  School.     Geo.  M.  Boynton.     Pilgrim  Press,  75  cents. 
The  Graded  Sunday  School.     Rev.  A.  H.  McKinncy.     10  cents. 
The  Bible  School.     M.  C.  Hazard.     I'ilgrim  Press,  25  cents. 
The  Home  Department.     Rev.  A.  H.  McKinnei/.     Littleton,  60  cents. 
The  Home  Department.     Flora  V.  Stehbins.     ^.  S.  Times  Co.,  25  cents. 
The  Business  End  of  the  Sunday  School.     Adv.,  Hammond   Pub.   Co., 

Milwaukee,  free. 
t^THE  Modern  Sunday  School.     Henry  F.  Cope.     Revell,  $1.00. 

The  Modern  Sunday  School.     Dr.  J.  H.  Vincent.     Eaton  &  Mains,  60c. 
Modern  Methods  in  the  Sunday  School.     Geo.  TF.  Mead.     Dodd,  Mead, 

$1.50. 
Handbook  of  Sunday  School  Work.    Rev.  L.  E.  Peters.    Am.  Bapt.  Soc, 

60  cents. 


500  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

t*II()w  TO  Conduct  a  Sunday  School.     Marion  Lawrence.     Revell,  $1.25. 
HiKLE  School  Cirkiculum.     Geo.  A.  Pcanc.     Un.  Chic.  Tress,  .?1.50. 
A  Manual  op  Sunday  School  Methods.     Kev.  A.  P.  Foster^  U.D.     Union 

I'ress,  70  cents. 
Sunday  School  Kecouds,  etc.     E.  A.  Fox.     S.  S.  Times  Co.,  50  cents. 
The  Pastou  in  the  Sunday  School.     John  F.  Ferris,  D.D.     Times,  25c. 

7.    HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION. 

Moral  Education.     Herbert  Spencer. 
*I'kk-Chi{1stian  Education.     iV.  «.  Laurie,  LL.D.     Longmans,  $2.50. 
t*KDUCATioN.     Herbert  Spencer.     Appleton,   50c;   $1.25. 

Text-Book  in   History  of  Education.     Prof.   Paul  Monroe.     Macmillan, 
$2.50. 
♦The  Rise  and  Early  Constitution  of  Universities.     S.  S.  Laurie,  LL.D. 
Appleton,  $1.50. 
t*EDUCATioNAL   REFORMERS.      Quick.     Bames,   $1.00. 
•Pestaluzzi.     Rofier  BeGuimp.     Appleton,  $1.50. 
Leonard  and  Gertrude.     Pcslaloszi.     Appleton,  $1.50. 
Fr(h:i!el's  IOducatidnal  liAw.s.    Ja.s'.  L.  UikjIic.s.     Appleton,  $1.50. 
Education  of  Man.     F.  Frovhcl.     Appleton,  $1.50. 
Pedago(;ics  of  the  Kindergarten.     Appleton,  $1.50. 
Montaigne's  Education  of  Children.     L.  E.  Rector.     Appleton,  $1.00. 
Herbart's  Introductory  Works.     Wm.  J.  Eckoff.     Appleton,  $1.50. 
Rousseau's  Emile.     W.  H.  Payne.     Appleton,  $1.50. 
New  Atlantis.     Bacon. 
Holy  Roman  Empire.     Brycc. 
German  Higher  Schools.     Russell. 

Education  of  the  United  States.     Boone.     Appleton,  $1.50. 
t»THE   Sunday   School   in  the   Development  of  the   American   Church. 
Oscar  S.  Michael.     Young  Churchman  Co.,  $1.50. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


"According  to  Nature"  Tendeucv,  122, 

4r)l-455. 
Activity,    110,   120. 

Love  of.  iiK. 
Abstract,  Children  not   interested   in, 

117,   252. 
Academie-s,  4GC. 

Adolescence:     Awivwardness     during', 
i:iS  i;?!). 
Hodily  clianges  during,  138-1 4."«. 
Characteristics  of,   138-172,  174. 
"Gang"    Age,    161-1 G2. 
Growth  during,   138-150. 
Kitvinl.    lt;8. 
Secret  iveness,  KiO. 
Adult   Bible  Classes.  220,  315. 
Affection,   Desire   for,    134. 
Affectation,    123. 
Agricola.  440. 
Aim  of  Education,  34. 
Alcuin,  433. 

American  Church   Sunday  School   In- 
stitute,  483  (f. 
American     Sunday     School     Institute 

Magazine.  4S3. 
American  Sunday  School  Union,  Al'tff. 
Analogv,  Law  of,  (55. 
Apostolic  Church,  Studv  of,  259,  201. 
Apperception,    00-71,    233-240. 
Apperception   Explained,   09. 
"Application."  207. 
A(|uaviva,   442. 
Aristotle,   427-428. 
Ascham,  447. 
"Association."  200. 
Association  of  Ideas,  See  Ideas. 
Assyrians,   410. 
Atavism,  41. 
Attention,    74-70. 

Detinitions  of,  71,  289-290. 

How  not   to  get,   290-291. 

Kinds  of,   70,  289. 

Types  of,  76,  289. 

\ariation  in,  295. 

Voluntarv     and     Involuntarv,     75, 

289-290. 
Will,  basis  of,  292. 
Aufkliirung.   71,   108-109. 
Awkwardness,    138. 

B 

Babvlonian    Education,    415-416. 
Bacon,    448-449. 
Baptismal  Roll,  392-393. 


Basedow.   454-455. 

Bible,      Advisability     of     placing     in 
hands  of  children,  211. 

Ueference,  200. 
Bible  History    (See  Church  and   His- 
tory. ) 
I'.ibliography  of  Training  Books,  497- 

500. 
Biography   Age,    116. 
I'.lakeslee,    Erastus,   493. 
Body    (See  also   Adolescence.) 

EITect  of  mind  on,  175-176. 
Book,  Text,  Tvpes  of,  200-202 
Book  Work,  332-333. 
Books,  497-500. 
Borromeo,  Charles,  441. 
Brain,    Cortex   of,    59. 

Effect  of  alcohol  on,  54. 

Weight  of,  53,  54. 

White  and  gray  matter  in,  53. 
Butler,   I'res.   N.   M.,   3. 


Caprice,   130. 

Catechism,  And  the  small  child,  132, 
134,  255,  348. 
Inductive  method  in  teaching,  132, 

210. 
Memorizing,  132,  348-349. 
Taught   best   with   Christian    Year, 

225. 
Written  work  in,  348-349. 
Cells.  Ciliated,  49. 
Cartilage.    48. 
Connection    of,    48. 
Division  of,  4(). 
lOpithiMial,    47. 
Muscle,      voluntary,       involuntary, 

and  heart,  47. 
Xerve.  55. 
Types  of,   40. 
Certainty,    Instinct   of,   101. 
Cerebrum,  52. 

Character,    Effect    of   Iloreditv    upon, 
34. 
Executive  agencies  in  formation  of, 

280. 
Factors  at  work  in  development  of, 

34-38. 
Force   of,    11. 
Influence  of   Environment   on,    34, 

100. 
Instinct  at  basis  of,   92. 
Self-control    in   building  of,   100. 
Training,  10(5. 


504 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 


CharacteristicH,  Table  of,  174-175. 
Charlcin:if;iii'.    4:',()-434. 
Child,   Comitanitms  of,  115,  123,  124, 
132. 

Content  of  mind  of,  226-230. 

Conereteness  in,  117,  252. 

Dependence   of,    113. 

Development   of,    108,    225. 

Discovery   of,   33. 

Kffect  of  music  on,  370,  392. 

Imitativeness  in,  41,  115,  132. 

Instincts  of,  37. 

Mind  at  birth,  40. 

Mind   of,   37. 

Motor  Type  of,  180. 

Plane  of  experience  of,  225. 

Restlessness  in,  109,  120,  282. 

Savagery  in,   112. 

Sensory,  180. 

Study  of,  34. 

Temper  in,  41. 

Trustfulness  of  little,  113. 

Types   of,   179-181. 
Chinese   Education,   414. 
Christ,   Study   of,   258,   260. 
Chivalric  Education,  433. 
Christian   Year,   Patterson   Chart   of, 

2.5.5. 
Church  of  England  Sunday  School  In- 
stitute, 483. 
Church      History,      Study      of,      201. 

(See  also  History.) 
Coercive  Agencies  for  order,  277. 
Collecting  Instinct,  101,  135. 
Colors,  Influence  of,  24-28. 
Comenius,   450-451. 
Commission    Movement,   485-490. 
Commission  Series,  485  /f.,  493. 
Conereteness     (See    also    Attention), 

117,  252. 
Conscience,  Definitions  of,  163-165. 

Elements   of.    163-168. 

Growth  of,  118,  136,  163-165. 

Rise  in  Puberty  of,  118.  136. 

Undeveloped  in  small  children,  118- 
120,   136. 
Consciousness  of  Power,  98. 
Constructiveness,  Instinct  of,  101. 
Conversion,    153. 

Average  age  of,  155. 
Conversion  Curves,   157-161. 
Coiiperation  of  the  Pupils,  217. 
Correlation,  213-217. 
Courage,   128. 
"Cramming."   341. 
Credulity.  113-115. 
Culture,  Epoch  Theory,  35-40. 
Curricula,  244-266. 

Principles  of  well-rounded,  244. 

Standard.   245-266. 

I'^ederation  Form,  247. 

.Joint  Commission  Form,  245. 

X.  Y.  S.  S.  Commission  Form,  248. 

Subjects  suggested.  245-266. 

Subject-graded,    245-266,    485-490, 
489. 
Curiosity,  During  childhood,  115. 

Educational  value  of,  97. 
Cyran,   444. 


D 
Deduction,   214-210. 
Deliberation.  85,  86.  148. 
Dependent    Age,    113. 
Devel(ji)ment    I'lan,    210. 
Dewcv.    Prof..    Quoted.    6. 
Discipline.  110,  274-275,  286. 
Disorder.    274-275.    285. 
Doaue.  Elder  Pishop.  479-481. 
Doctrine,   Study  of   (See  also   Faith) 

150,  152,  260. 
Doubting  Period,   149-151. 
Dualism   in  Adolescence,   169. 
DuBois   Rules  for   Point   of   Contact, 
223-228. 

E 

Education,     "According    to     Nature" 

Tendency  in,  122,  451-455. 

Aim  of,  3,   188. 

Assyrian,  416. 

Pabylonian,    415-416. 

Child  as  factor  in,  33. 

Chinese,  414. 

Chivalric,  443. 

Christian,  429-237. 

Definitions  of,  5-10. 

Early  Christian,   429-430. 

Early    Scientific,    448-451. 

Egyptian,   414-415. 

Elements,  Three   in  all  Education, 
12. 

Factors  in,  4-5. 

Fundamental   Principles  of.   34. 

Greek,   426-428. 

Hebrew,    416  421. 

Humanistic  Type   of,   440-444. 

Industrial  Tendencv  in,  467. 

Mediaeval.  430-433. 

Medo-Persian.  423-426. 

Modern.  46.3-467. 

Of  India.  421-423. 

Old  versus  New,  3,  34,  42. 

I'hoenician,  416. 

Psychological  Tendency  in.  455-461. 

Realistic   Tvpe   of,    446-448. 

Roman.   428-429. 

Scientific  Tendencv  in,  448-451. 

Self-activity   in.   43. 

Sociological   Tendency   in.   461-463. 

Thring's  Definition  of.   11,  17. 
Educational  Ideals.  11,  13. 
Egoistic  Feelings,  117. 
"Elaboration,"    206. 
Emotion.   89. 

Emulation.  Educational  value  of,  98. 
England.  Modern  Educational  School 
Systems   in.  464. 

Religious  Education  in,  464. 
Enlightenment.    165. 
Environment.  Effect  on  Character,  34. 
Ethical  Dualism.  169. 
Examinations.  219-220,  388. 
Executive  Agencies  for  Order,  280. 
Experience,   I'lane  of,   225. 

F 
Face,   the  Window  of  the  Mind,   90. 
Faith,  Age  of.   111,   113. 
Fatalism,    35. 
Fatigue,   Kinds  of.  296. 
Signs   of,    290-297. 


INDKX 


505 


Tear,   Kducational   Value  of,   !»fi. 
•'FedtM-ation"      (See     Sunday     School 

Federation.) 
First   Day  Society,  474. 
Focus.   (',2. 
Font   Roll,  302-303. 
Foi-Rettlng,   343,  351. 
Formal  Steps  In  a  Lesson  Plan,  204- 

208. 
Foreword,   xli. 
"Forward    Movement,"    Fundamental 

I'rinciples  of,  488-401. 
France,    Modern    Educational    School 
Systems   in.   4i;3. 

IleliRlous  Instruction  in,  403. 
Frankness,    111. 
Frederick  the  Great,  435,  403. 
Fringe,  02,  03. 
Froebel,  34,  401. 
Functioning  In  Doing,  12. 

G 
"Gang  Age,"  101-102. 
"Gang  Instinct,"  101-102. 
Germany,  Modern  Educational  School 
Systems  in,  403. 

Religious   Education   in,   403. 
Germplasm    Theory,    37. 
Grading.   230-200. 

How   to  Grade,   204-200. 

Practical  Wavs  or,  242. 

The  Small   School,  243. 

What   it   is,   230 

What  it  is  NOT,  241. 
Grafting  Unknown  to  the  Known,  233. 
Grammar  School,   255-201,   303. 
Greek  Education,  420-428. 
Gregory,    Henry,    478. 
Group  Age,  132. 

ir 

Habits.  Formation  of,  12-13,  103-100, 
.■!.".2  302. 

Important.  300-302. 

Motives  in  formation  of,  103. 

Rules   for   formation   of,    103,   355, 
357. 

Specialization  of,  353-355. 

Sub-conscious  field  of,  353. 
Hand   Work    (See   Manual   Methods.) 
narrower,    Rev.    Paschal,   485. 
Harvard.  .John,  405. 
Heart  in  Education,  18. 
Hebrew  Education,  410-421. 
Herbart,    204.    4(;o-4(il 
Herbartian  Method,  34,  204-208. 
Heredity,  34-38. 
Hero  Ages,  127,  100. 
Heuristic  Method,  200,  201,  200,  400, 

405. 
Hervey's    Directions   for   Study,   202- 

204. 
Ilieh  School,  201-202,  305. 
History  Age.   118. 
Ilobart.  Bishop,  477. 
Home  Department,  305-500. 
Honesty.   171,  201. 
Hughling  -  Jackson        Three        Level 

Theory,    154. 
Humanistic  Type  of  Education,  440- 
444. 


Humor,  Crudity  of  in  Child,  131. 
Hypnotism,   Effect  upon  memory,  81. 

I 
Ideas,   Association  of,  02,  70-71. 
Idi'als.  Power  of,  147-155. 

In   Youth,   147-140. 
Ignorance  of  Children    (See  Point  of 

Contact.) 
Illustration    (See  also  Stories.) 

Cliaraci eristics  of,  310. 

Dangers  in,  310. 

(Jood,  320-321. 

How    it   appeals    to    children,    317- 
310. 

How   to   learn,   323. 

Purpose  of,  .'US. 

Rules  for,  321-322. 

Verbal,   325-320. 
Imagination.    IKJ,   318,   320. 
Imitation,   Educational    value  of,  97. 

Of  companions,    115,    132. 

In  child,  41. 
Impulsiveness,    127. 
Incentive    Agencies    for    Order,    281, 

405. 
Independence,  128. 
India.   Education  of.  421-423. 
Inductive    Mctliod.    214-210. 
Industrial    Education.   4(!7. 
Infancy,  Development  during,  40. 

Education   in,  30. 
Infant  School   (See  Kindergarten.) 
Inhibition.  93,   103-100,  352-302. 
Insight.  Philosophic,  72,  172. 
Instincts,  Classification  of,  94. 

Differentiation    of,    02-95,    101-102. 

Educational  Value  of,  95. 

"Gang,"    101-103. 

In  children,  37. 

Natural   and  Acquired,  92. 

Table  of,  92-95. 

Transitoriness  of,  102-103. 
Intellect,  89. 
Interaction  of  Mind,  Spirit,  and  Body, 

175-179. 
Interest,    as    basis   of   Attention,    74, 
281,   208-305,  341. 

Causes  of,  301. 

False  views  of,  303-304. 

How  to  obtain,  298-305,  301. 

How  to  kill.  .302-303. 

Kinds  of.  299-302. 

Means    of   keeping   order,    277-282. 
International    Sunday    School    Move- 
ment, 484-485. 
J 
Jacotet,   459. 
Jelly-fish.  45-40. 
Jeromites.   440. 
Jesuits,    441-444. 
Joint  Commission  on   Sunday   School 

Instruction,  245. 
Joint     Diocesan     Lesson     Committee, 

483  ff. 
Judgment.   Training  of.  308-370. 
Junior  Department,  245. 

K 
Kemper,   Jackson.  475. 
Kempis,  Thomas  ;1,  440. 


.500 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 


Kindorgarteu,   Grade   and   Principles, 

252-l!r)8. 
Kitchen  Schools,  4G5. 
Knowledge,    Need   of   self-activity    to 

gain,  35,   43. 
Small  Child  lacking  in,  223-228. 


liancaster,  40G. 

La  Salle,   445. 

Lesson,    Application   of,   207. 

Assigning  of,  li)8,  266-207. 

liiography  as  material  for,   IIG. 

Central   thought   for,  212. 

Correlation  of,  213. 

Development  plan  of,  210. 

Functioning  of,  12. 

How  to  prepare,   193-204. 

Question    method    in    introduction 
of,  209. 

Review  of.  207,  218. 

Title   of,   208. 
Lesson  Period  (See  also  Recitation.) 

386,  388. 
Lesson      Systems      (See     also     Text 
Books.) 

Blakeslee    or    Bible    Study    Union, 
493. 

Commission  Series,  487,  493. 

Doaue  or  Gvvynne  Series,  493. 

International,  484-490,  493. 

Question-and-Answer,   492. 

S.   Sulpice,  492. 

Uniform,   483-484,   493. 
"Lies"  of  Children,  116. 
Life,  Lowest  form  of,  45. 
Locke,   451-454. 

Love,  Educational  value  of,  96. 
Luther,   441. 

M. 
Mann,  Horace.  34,  400. 
Man's  Five-Fold  Inheritance,  3. 
Manual  Work,  332-336,  359,  491. 
Maps,   326,  332-336. 
Map-work,  Class,  258,  326,  334-335. 

Drawing,  327. 

Grammar  School.  258,  334-335. 

Historical,  258-259. 

In  Flat,  335. 

Outline,  258,   336. 

Relief,   334-335. 
Maurus,     Rabbanus,     Archdeacon     of 

Meintz,  433. 
Meade.  Bishop,  481. 
Medo-Persian  Education,  423-426. 
Melancthon,  440. 
Memory,  76-80,  337-351. 

Apperception    necessary    for,    233- 
240,  338. 

How  to  Memorize,  341. 

Laws  of,  76-80,  338-330. 

Rational,  77,  342. 

Retention  in,  132. 

Tvpes  of.  80.  337-338. 

Verbal,  77,  341. 

Weak  in  Childhood,   123. 
Memoriter   Work,   132-138,   341,   345- 

346,  350. 
Alental  Progress,  190. 
Milner,  James,  475. 


Milton,  446-447. 

Mind  and  Thinking,  71,  175-1  70. 

Missions,  261,  2(>3. 

Models,   327,   336. 

Montaigne,   447. 

Moral    Training,    Elements    of,    106, 

357,  363-364. 
Moravians,  441. 

Motives     (see     Instincts     and     Emo- 
tions).    284-285. 
Muhlenberg,  Dr.,  481. 
Mulcaster,   449. 
Music   (see  also  Ritual). 

Effect  upon   Will  of,  370-371. 

In  Sunday  School,  392. 

N. 

Nature,  "According  to  Nature"  Ten- 
dency, 122,  450,  455. 
Love  of,  122. 

Necessary  Perception,  124. 

Nerves,  52,   57. 

Neurones,  54. 

Xewton,    Rev.   Richard,   480-481. 

New  York  Protestant  Episcopal  Sun- 
day School  Society,  479. 

New    York    Sunday    School    Commis- 
sion, 260-270,  485-491. 

Note  Books,   Use   in   Primary   School 
of,  252-253,  333-335. 

Novels,  Reading  of,  145. 

O. 

Old  Testament.  257,  250,  202. 

Oratoriones,  444. 

Order,  Agencies  for  keeping,  277-282. 

Detinitions  of,  271-274. 

How  to  secure,  274. 

Incentives  to,  277,  282. 

Noisy  children,  282,  285. 

Of   Studies.    245-206. 
Ownership,  Educational  value  of,  100. 
Oxford  Movement,  480. 
(Jxford  University,   436. 


Parents,  Careless,  122. 

Hints  to,  123-124. 
Paris  Universitv   (see  Universities). 
Paul,  Saint,  Life  of,  259.  201. 
I'eers,  Benjamin  O.,  479-480. 
I'enalties    (see  also   Punishment   and 

Discipline),  119. 
Per.sonality,  Evolution  of.  38-39. 
Personalizing  Religion,  155. 
PiTsonilication,  115. 
Pcstalozzi,   34,  456-459. 
Pliilanthropinum,  454. 
Philadelphia      Protestant      Episcopal 
Sunday  and  Adult  Society,  470  /f. 
Pliiladelpliia    Sunday    and    Adult    So- 
ciety.   475  ff. 
Philosoiiliic  Insight,  72.  172. 
I'lioenician  Education,  410. 
I'bvsiognomy.  90. 

Pictures,    Children's   appreciation   of, 
253-254,  326. 

Fields  of  use,  327-328. 

Graded  use  of,  254,  327,  332-335. 

In  Grammar  School,  225-256. 

Selection  of,  326-329. 


ixi)i:.\ 


507 


Plnn(>  of  lOxporlcnce,  225. 
J'lasiicllv.    KiJ. 
Pinto,  427. 
I'lav.   Love  of,  110. 
Toliit  of  Contact,  223-228,  234. 
Port    Kovalists,   444. 
I'ost  Grudiiato   School,  265,  395. 
Power,  i-ousciousuess  of,  98. 
Pragmatism,   T.'i. 
Prayer,    170,    103. 
Prayer  Hook,  42,  43,  254,  203. 
Prefa<'e,   xl. 
•■Prei)arntlon,"   204. 
'■Pre.sentatiou,"   205. 
Primnrv  AKe,  ItiO. 
Primary  School.  252-250. 
Psycliolopy,   45-(10. 
Piihertv    (see  Adolescence). 
Pul)lic  "School.  Visiting  In  I  he,  198. 
Week  I>av  Ueligious  Instruction  in, 

400-400. 
I'ugnacity,  Instinct  of,  101. 
Punctuality,  22,  274. 
I'unishment    (see  also  Discipline  and 

Penalties),    119,    129,    280,    405- 

406. 
Pupils,  Placing  in  Class,  294. 

Q. 
Question-and-Answer  Books,  307,  308, 

347. 
Questioning.  Art  of,  300. 
Character  of.  310-315. 
Curiosity  and,  310. 
Effect  of.  300-307. 
How  to  learn  how,  310. 
Kinds  of,  308-310. 
Methods  of  Propounding,  209,  307- 
309. 
Questioning  Ages,   115,   127. 
Quintilian,  429. 

R. 
Rabelais.  44G. 
Raikes,  Robert,  470-472. 
Ratlch.   449-450. 
Ratio  Studiorum,  442. 
Reading.   194-198. 
Realistic  Type.  446-448. 
Realizing  an  Idea,  70. 
Reason  and  Reasoning,   148-150,  341. 
Recapitulation  Theory,  44,  45. 
Recklessness,  128. 
Recitation   (see  also  Lesson). 

Balancing    Instruction    with,    373- 
380,  377. 

Metliod  of  Conducting,  373. 
Recollection,  05,  78-79. 
Reflection.  71,  85,  80,  148. 
Religious  Education,  History  of,  413- 

491. 
Religious  Education  Association,  484. 
Renaissance.  First,  433. 

Second.    434. 

Third,   438. 
Restlessness.  109,  126. 
Ronchlin,  440. 
Reviews,  207,  218,  375-370. 
Rewards    (see   also    Punishment    and 
Discipline). 

Use  of,  405-407. 


Rhythm,  48. 

lUtual,  168-170. 

It.mKiii   i;ducalion,  428-429. 

Koninnce,  Age  of,  145. 

Ituusseau,  452-454. 


Savagery,  In  children,  112. 
Scepticism   (see  also  l)(jnbti,   150. 
Scientific  Tendency,   448-451. 
Schools,  Bishops,  432. 

Board,  464. 

Catechetical,  430-432. 

Cathedral,  431-432. 

Chivalric,  433,  443. 

Conventual,   431. 

Dame,  4()5. 

Early   Christian,   429-430. 

In    England,  464. 

In  l''rance,  463. 

In  (Jernianv,  463. 

In  the  United  States,  464. 

Monastic,   431. 

Of  the  I'rophets,  416-421. 

I'ost  Graduate,  395. 

I'rimary,  252-25<J. 

Subject-graded,  239-275,  489-492. 

Voluntary,  464. 
Scotus,  Duns,  433. 
"Second  Wind,"   99. 
Self,  Material,  Social,  and  Spiritual, 
106. 

Sub-conscious,    80-82. 
Self-activity,  35,  43,  254,  359. 
Self-consciousness,   146. 
Self-denial,  38-39,  365. 
Self-unconsciousness,   115. 
Senility.   190. 
Senior  Department,  246. 
Sense-perception,  71. 
Sex,    Need    of    instruction    regarding, 

139-144. 
Sex-attraction,    144-145. 
Sex-repellance,  13(!. 
Sex-unconsciousness,  123. 
Silent  Teachers,  26. 
Similarity,  Law  of,  65. 
Skepticism.  149-151. 
Sloyd   Work,   467. 
Smith,  Rev.  Wm.  Walter,  486. 
Sociological   Tendency,  461-463. 
Socrates,  214-216,  307,  323,  427,  429. 
Sophists,  427. 

Source  Method   (see  Heuristic). 
Spencer,  Herbert,  462-463. 
Spinal   Cord,   50-53. 
Stages  of  Thinking,  71. 
Stanz,  457. 
Stereoscope.   329-331. 
Stories,   Bible.   324-326. 

Characteristics  of,  319. 

Children's  love  of,  318,  322. 

Choice  of,  321-325. 

Moral  of,  207,  325. 

Versus  Biography  and  History,  118. 
Storm  and  Stress  Period,  149-151. 
Story-telling,  212. 

Aims    in,    318. 

Rules  for,  319-321. 
Stoughton,  Charles  Wm.,  xii-xvi. 


508 


RKLlGlorS  EDUCATION 


Straatsburg  System,  440. 

Stream  of  Consciousness,  01-64. 

Studies,  Order  of,  24.")-2()C. 

Studium  Cenerale,  4;35  ff. 

Study,  Suggestions  for,  193-204,  202. 

Sturm,  .loliii,  440. 

Sulj-cou.scious   Self,   64,   80. 

Subliminal  Self,  64,  80. 

Sunday  School  Exhibits,  487. 

Sunday    School    Commission   of    New 

York,   485-401. 
Sunday  School   Federation,  247,  488. 
Sunday  Schools,  Aim  of,  383. 

Charity,  470-472. 

Commencement  Day  in,  388. 

Departments   in,  392. 

Early  Origin  of,  469-475. 

Grad'ed  (see  also  Grading),  32,  206. 

(Jrading  Teacher  of,   404. 

Inadequacy  of,  400-407. 

In   America,   472-490. 

Kiiulergnrten   in,   252-258. 

Librarian  of,  404. 

Messenger  Service,  405. 

Organization  of,  380-388. 

Post-Graduate  Department  of,  202- 
205. 

rossibilities  of,  380-387. 

Primary  Department  of,  252-256. 

Itegistrar  of,  404. 

School  Year,  387. 

Secretaries  of,  402-404. 

Senior  Department  in,  246  ff. 

Special   Days  in.  387. 

Superintendent  of,  401-402. 

Time  of,   390-391. 

Treasurer  of,  404. 
Sunday  School  Lectures,  486,  488. 
Sunday  School  .Magazines,  483. 
Symbolism,  115. 

System    (see   Order   and   Lesson   Sys- 
tems), 494. 

Modern  Educational,  403-407. 

Straatsburg,  456. 
T. 
Table  of  Mental  (Jrowth,  174-175. 
Tabulated  Curricula.  250.  251. 
Teachers,  Age  and  Sex  of,  397-398. 

Consecration  essential  for,  22,  193. 

Common  Sense  necessary  for,  24. 

Definitions  of.   17-24. 

Discouraged,  20. 

Disorderly    (see   also   Order),   280- 
288. 

Earnestness  of,  22. 

Good,  17. 

Hints   to,   123-124,    189-190. 

Liberty  of,  18. 

Magnetism  of,  24. 

Meetings  for,  28,  398-400. 

Need  of  Intellectual  Activity  in,  21. 

Orderliness  of,   275. 

I'aid,  398. 

I'ersonallty  of,  2:f. 

I'unctuality  essential  to,  22,  274. 

Responsibilitv  of,   194-196. 

Selecting.  396. 

Sex  of,  397. 

Silent,   26. 

Sympathy  of,  18. 


System,  25. 

Time  of,  17. 

Training  of,  194-196,  480-488. 
Teaching,   Deductive   method  of    (see 
Deduction  I. 

Delinition  of,   17-24. 

Liberty  In,   18. 

Plan  for  (see  Lesson),  193-204. 

Point  of  Contact  in,  223-228. 

Post-Graduate  School  for,  202-204. 

Principles  of,  202. 

Science   in,   23. 

Sympathy   in,   18. 

Testing  results  of  (see  Lesson  and 
Questioning). 

Time    for,    18-20. 

Types  in  (see  also  Types),  220. 

Use  of  words  in,  228-233. 

Versus  Training.   207. 
Temperament,     Intlueuce     on     Chris- 
tianity,  185-187. 

Influence  on   Church,   185-187. 

Individual    differences   in,    181-187. 

Race  (Characteristics  of,   187. 

Ue-action,   185. 

Table  of,  187. 

Types  of,    181-185. 
Text-Kooks     (see    also    Lesson     Sys- 
tems  and    Books). 

Rest,   200-202. 

Christian   Doctrine.   200. 

Christian  Ethics,  259. 

Church   History,  201. 

Early  Christian  Leaders,  259.  201. 

Epistles  of  New  Testament,  262. 

Life  of  Christ.  258,  259,  260. 

Missions.   2<ll-2(;3. 

Old  Testament   History,  259. 

Old  Testament   Stories,  257. 

Prayer  Rook.  42,  43,  263. 

Prophets  of  Old  Testament,  262. 

Question-andAnswer,  307,  308,  347. 

Teachings  of  Christ,  259-260. 
Thinking,   228-233. 
Thomas,   CJeorge  C,  483. 
Three-Level  Theory,   154. 
Thring,  Prof.,  Quoted,  11,  17. 
Transit oriness  of  Instincts,   102. 
Truan<'y,  128. 
Tutorial  System,  452. 
Types,  of  Children,  179. 
'Use  of  Types,  220. 

U. 

T^nbelief,   148-151. 

Understanding,   71. 

Uniformity  of  System,  494. 

United  Rrethren,  441. 

United     States,     Modern     Education 

Systems  in,  4()4-460. 
Universities,    Content    of    Education 

in,   430-437. 
Difference         between         Monastic 

Schools  and.  435-430. 
Formation  of.   4:^4-435. 
University  of  I'aris,  434-435. 
Untruthfulness,  of  children,  116. 

V. 

Value  of  Play,  111. 
View  of  the  World,  173. 


INDEX  509 

Vis  a   fr.intt',  :iU.  Itcliiiltlon  of,  84,  303. 

A'is   Kxicriuis,   :!'.».  iK'slrc   and,   300. 

Vis  Iiiicrnus,  :{!l.  Iiitcr-rclaiion  of  Intellect  and,  371. 

VIr  Scries.    li;{.  St  ren>,'l  licniiitc  bv  pledges,  3(57. 

Vocabiilaiv  »(  Clilldi-en,  •J221'33.  Tralniuf,'  of,  100-108,  21>2,  303-30.J, 

Von   Iluiuiiohlt.  AiVA.  308. 

A'on    Scliucknianii,    103.  Tvpes  of,  87-88. 

«•  W. 11-1(1  hnildinfj,    173. 

Waldensos,  441.        '  WyUwu   Work.  •jr,r,-201.  340,  400. 

Week    Dav    Instruction,   400-407.  »   t'liinimar   School,  2;jo. 

Wesscl     440  Reasons   for,    340. 

White  '  HIshop    473  Words,    ("liild's    Vocabulary,    228-233. 

Whittinfiham,  ■477-47!).  Meinorizinf,'      (see      Memory      and 

Wiilin;,',   Consetiuenccs  of.  307.  Memoriter  %\ork). 

Incompatible     with     knowing     and  Y. 

feeliuR    8!».  Youth,  Holding  tlieni  in  Church,  144. 

\  ersus   Deliberation,  etc.,  SO.  Yvei-dnn    4".T 

Will,   303-372.  ivtiuun,   1.... 

UreakluK  of.   100,  372.  '^• 

Choice  and  decision  by,  307-308.  Zend-Avesta,  424. 

Conscious  and  unconscious,  84.  Zoroastrianism,  424. 


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K£B  2  8 

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DEMCO  38-297 

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BV 
Religious 


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